In recent times, Arabs have shown the world that they are ready for additional democratic reforms. We must nevertheless question what democracy means to them. How do they think about the role of religious leaders in democracy? Does democracy imply extending the rights of women? How do Arabs see the connection between democracy and a prosperous economy? Answers to these and similar questions are important in order to interpret the high levels of support for democracy that are being observed in the Arab world, as well as the possible outcomes of the Arab spring. It is also important to examine whether Arabs have a common understanding of democracy or whether they disagree on the form that democracy should take. Wide variations in the meaning of democracy could retard the process of democratization. In this article, public opinion data from Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, and Morocco are used to develop a detailed image of what democracy means to Arabs.
al-Braizat, F. (2002). Muslims and democracy—An empirical critique of Fukuyama’s culturalist approach. International Journal of Comparative Sociology, 43, 269-299. doi:10.1177/002071520204300304
Alesina, A., Devleeschauwer, A., Easterly, W., Kurlat, S., & Wacziarg, R. (2003). Fractionalization. Journal of Economic Growth, 8, 155- 194. doi:10.1023/A:1024471506938
Arensmeier, C. (2010). The democratic common sense. Young Swedes’ understanding of democracy—Theoretical features and educational incentives. Young, 18, 197-222. doi:10.1177/110330881001800205
Ariely, G., & Davidov, E. (2011). Can we rate public support for democracy in a comparable way? Cross-national equivalence of democratic attitudes in the World Value Survey. Social Indicators Research, 104, 271-286. doi:10.1007/s11205-010-9693-5
Bratton, M. (2003). Briefing: Islam, democracy and public opinion in Africa. African Affairs, 102, 493-501. doi:10.1093/afraf/adg049
Bratton, M., & Mattes, R. (2001). Africans’ surprising universalism. Journal of Democracy, 12, 107-121. doi:10.1353/jod.2001.0002
Camp, R. A. (2001). Democracy through Latin American lenses. An appraisal. In R. A. Camp (Ed.), Citizen views of democracy in Latin America (pp. 3-23). Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press.
Canache, D. (2006). Measuring variance and complexity in citizens’ understanding of democracy. Prepared for the LAPOP-UNDP Workshop: Candidate Indicators for the UNDP Democracy Support Index (DSI), Nashville, TN: Vanderbilt University.
Canache, D., Mondak, J. J., & Seligson, M. A. (2001). Meaning and measurement in cross-national research on satisfaction with democracy. Public Opinion Quarterly, 65, 506-528. doi:10.1086/323576
Chu, Y.-H., Diamond, L., Nathan, A. J., & Shin, D. C. (2008). Introduction: Comparative perspectives on democratic legitimacy in East Asia. In G. A. Chung-Yan, L. Diamond, A. J. Nathan, & D. C. Shin (Eds.), How East Asians view democracy (pp. 1-38). New York: Columbia University.
Ciftci, S. (2010). Modernization, Islam, or social capital: What explains attitudes toward democracy in the Muslim world? Comparative Political Studies, 43, 1442-1470. doi:10.1177/0010414010371903
Dahl, R., Shapiro, I., & Cheibub, J. (2003). The democracy sourcebook. London: The MIT Press.
Dalton, R. J., Shin, D. C., & Jou, W. (2007). Understanding democracy: Data from unlikely places. Journal of Democracy, 18, 142-156.
Diamond, L. (1999). Developing democracy: Toward consolidation. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
Diamond, L., & Plattner, M. F. (2008). How people view democracy. Baltimore: The John Hopkins University Press.
Díez-Nicolás, J. (2007). Value systems of elites and publics in the Mediterranean: Convergence or divergence. New York: Palgrave Mac- Millan.
Dixon, J. C. (2008). A clash of civilizations? Examining liberal-democratic values in Turkey and the European Union. British Journal of Sociology, 59, 681-708. doi:10.1111/j.1468-4446.2008.00215.x
Esmer, Y. (2002). Is there an Islamic civilization? Comparative Sociology, 1, 265-298. doi:10.1163/156913302100418600
Fearon, J. D. (2003). Ethnic and cultural diversity by country. Journal of Economic Growth, 8, 195-222. doi:10.1023/A:1024419522867
Fish, M. S. (2002). Islam and authoritarianism. World Politics, 55, 4-37. doi:10.1353/wp.2003.0004
Fuchs, D. (1999). The democratic culture of unified Germany. In P. Norris (Ed.), Critical citizens. Global support for democratic government (pp. 123-145). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Glaeser, E., La Porta, R., Lopez-de-Silanes, F., & Shleifer, A. (2004). Do institutions cause growth? Journal of Economic Growth, 9, 271- 303. doi:10.1023/B:JOEG.0000038933.16398.ed
Grant, A., & Tessler, M. (2002). Palestinian attitudes toward democracy and its compatibility with Islam: Evidence from public opinion research in the West Bank and Gaza. Arab Studies Quarterly, 24, 1- 19.
Hofmann, S. R. (2004). Islam and democracy—Micro-level indications of compatibility. Comparative Political Studies, 37, 652-676. doi:10.1177/0010414004265881
Huang, M.-H. (2005). Islam and democracy: A global perspective. Taiwan Journal of Democracy, 1, 109-137.
Huntington, S. P. (1993). The clash of civilizations. Foreign Affairs, 72, 22-49. doi:10.2307/20045621
Ikeda, K., & Kohno, M. (2008). Japanese attitudes and values toward democracy. In G. A. Chung-Yan, L. Diamond, A. J. Nathan, & D. C. Shin (Eds.), How East Asians view democracy (pp. 161-186). New York: Columbia University.
Inglehart, R. (2003). How solid is mass support for democracy—And how can we measure it? Ps-Political Science & Politics, 36, 51-57. doi:10.1017/S1049096503001689
Inglehart, R., & Norris, P. (2003). The true clash of civilizations. Foreign Policy, 135, 62-70. doi:10.2307/3183594
Inglehart, R., Norris, P., & Welzel, C. (2002). Gender equality and democracy. Comparative Sociology, 1, 321-345. doi:10.1163/156913302100418628
Jamal, A. (2006). Reassessing support for democracy and Islam in the arab world: Evidence from Egypt and Jordan. World Affairs, 169, 51- 63. doi:10.3200/WAFS.169.2.51-63
Jamal, A., & Tessler, M. (2008). The Arab aspiration for democracy. In L. Diamond, & M. F. Plattner (Eds.), How people view democracy (pp. 129-142). Baltimore, MD: The John Hopkins University Press.
Linde, J., & Ekman, J. (2003). Satisfaction with democracy: A note on a frequently used indicator in comparative politics. European Journal of Political Research, 42, 391-408. doi:10.1111/1475-6765.00089
Maslow, A. H. (1943). A theory of human motivation. Psychological Review, 50, 370-396. doi:10.1037/h0054346
Massis, M. (1998). Jordan: A study of attitudes toward democratic changes. Arab Studies Quarterly, 20, 37-63.
Meyer, K., Rizzo, H., & Ali, Y. (1998). Islam and the extension of citizenship rights to women in Kuwait. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 37, 131-144. doi:10.2307/1388033
Meyer, K., Rizzo, H., & Ali, Y. (2007). Changed political attitudes in the Middle East—The case of Kuwait. International Sociology, 22, 289-324. doi:10.1177/0268580907076571
Meyer, K., Tope, D., & Price, A. M. (2008). Religion and support for democracy: A crossnational examination. Sociological Spectrum, 28, 625-653. doi:10.1080/02732170802206260
Midlarsky, M. I. (1998). Democracy and Islam: Implications for civilizational conflict and the democratic peace. International Studies Quarterly, 42, 485-511. doi:10.1111/0020-8833.00093
Miller, A. H., Hesli, V. L., & Reisinger, W. M. (1997). Conceptions of democracy among mass and elite in post-Soviet societies. British Journal of Political Science, 27, 157-190. doi:10.1017/S0007123497000100
Moaddel, M. (2010). Religious regimes and prospects for liberal politics: Futures of Iran, Iraq and Saudi Arabia. Futures, 42, 532-544. doi:10.1016/j.futures.2010.01.004
Moaddel, M., & Abdul-Latif, A. (2007). Events and value change: The impact of September 11, 2001 and the worldviews of Egyptians and Moroccans. In M. Moaddel (Ed.), Values and perceptions of the Islamic and Middle Eastern publics. New York: Palgrave MacMillan. doi:10.1057/9780230603332
Mogahed, D. (2006). Islam and democracy Gallup World Poll. Special report: Muslim World. Princeton, NJ: The Gallup Organization.
Moghadam, V. M. (2004). Towards gender equality in the Arab/Middle East region: Islam, gender, and feminist activism Background paper of HDR 2004. New York: Human Development Report Office.
Moreno, A. (2001). Democracy and mass belief systems in Latin America. In R. A. Camp (Ed.), Citizen views of democracy in Latin America (pp. 27-50). Pittsbugh: University of Pittsburgh Press.
Norris, P. (1999). Global support for democratic government. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Norris, P. (2011). Democratic deficit. Critical citizens revisited. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511973383
Norris, P., & Inglehart, R. (2002). Islamic culture and democracy: Testing the “clash of civilizations” thesis. Comparative Sociology, 1, 235-263. doi:10.1163/156913302100418592
Norris, P., & Inglehart, R. (2004). Religion and politics in the Muslim world. In P. Norris & R. Inglehart (Eds.), Sacred and secular. Religion and politics worldwide (pp. 133-156). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511791017.008
Rizzo, H., Abdel-Latif, A.-H., & Meyer, K. (2007). The relationship between gender equality and democracy: A comparison of Arab versus non-Arab Muslim societies. Sociology-the Journal of the British Sociological Association, 41, 1151-1170. doi:10.1177/0038038507082320
Rose, R. (2002). How Muslims view democracy: Evidence from Central Asia. Journal of Democracy, 13, 102-111. doi:10.1353/jod.2002.0078
Schedler, A., & Sarsfield, R. (2007). Democrats with adjectives: Linking direct and indirect measures of democratic support. European Journal of Political Research, 46, 637-659. doi:10.1111/j.1475-6765.2007.00708.x
Schumpeter, J. (1942). Capitalism, socialism and democracy. New York: Harper and Brothers.
Seligson, M. (2001). Costa Rican exceptionalism. Why the Ticos are different. In R. A. Camp (Ed.), Views of democracy in Latin America (pp. 90-106). Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press.
Shi, T. (2008). Democratic values supporting an authoritarian regime. In Y.-H. Chu, L. Diamond, A. J. Nathan, & D. C. Shin (Eds.), How East Asians view democracy (pp. 209-237). New York: Columbia University Press.
Shin, D. C., & Cho, Y. (2010). How East Asians understand democracy: From a comparative perspective. Asien, 116, 21-40.
Sigel, R. S. (1979). Students’ comprehension of democracy and its application to conflict situations. International Journal of Political Education, 2, 47-65.
Stevens, D., Bishin, B. G., & Barr, R. R. (2006). Authoritarian attitudes, democracy, and policy preferences among Latin American elites. American Journal of Political Science, 50, 606-620. doi:10.1111/j.1540-5907.2006.00204.x
Tessler, M. (1997). The origins of popular support for Islamist movements: A political economy analysis. In J. Entelis (Ed.), Islam, democracy, and the state in North Africa. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.
Tessler, M. (2002a). Do Islamic orientations influence attitudes toward democracy in the Arab world? Evidence from Egypt, Jordan, Morocco, and Algeria. International Journal of Comparative Sociology, 43, 229-249. doi:10.1177/002071520204300302
Tessler, M. (2002b). Islam and democracy in the Middle East—The impact of religious Orientations on attitudes toward democracy in four Arab countries. Comparative Politics, 34, 337-354. doi:10.2307/4146957
Tessler, M., & Gao, E. (2005). Gauging Arab support for democracy. Journal of Democracy, 16, 83-97. doi:10.1353/jod.2005.0054
Tessler, M., & Gao, E. (2009). Democracy and the political culture orientations of ordinary citizens: A typology for the Arab world and beyond. International Social Science Journal, 192, 197-207.
Tessler, M., Moaddel, M., & Inglehart, R. (2006). What do Iraqis want? Journal of Democracy, 17, 38-50. doi:10.1353/jod.2006.0019
Toros, E. (2010). The relationship between Islam and democracy in Turkey: Employing political culture as an Indicator. Social Indicators Research, 95, 253-265. doi:10.1007/s11205-009-9458-1
Welzel, C. (2011). The Asian values thesis revisited: Evidence from the World Values Surveys. Japanese Journal of Political Science, 12, 1- 31.
Yuchtman-Ya’ar, E., & Alkalay, Y. (2007). Religious zones, economic development and modern value orientations: Individual versus contextual effects. Social Science Research, 36, 789-807. doi:10.1016/j.ssresearch.2006.06.004
Yuchtman-Ya’ar, E., & Alkalay, Y. (2010). Political attitudes in the Muslim world. Journal of Democracy, 21, 122-134. doi:10.1353/jod.0.0183