As today’s society searches for renewable energy sources that could be an alte rnative to fossil fuels, biomass and biofuels provide a promising solution. Switchgrass is one of feedstocks that can be utilized as a renewable en ergy source. When farming, one of the most important considerations is efficienc y. This consists of several factors, including time, fuel use, economic an d powe r efficiencies of equipment. Inefficient field operations could increas e harvesting costs and in turn could cause hesitation when a farmer decides to participate in biomass production. This literature review will cover the main elements of biomass and biomass handling relating to determining harvesting effic i ency and biomass quality for switchgrass round bales. Specifically, the following sections include past research activities relating to biomass harvesting, biomass bale quality during outdoor storage, logistics models, and dat a collection methods during biomass harvesting. The objective of this review is to examine status and needs for switchgrass round bale harvesting operations and the expenses that come with it.
KeywordsBiomassBalingEnergy CropLogistics
Lu, X., Withers, M.R., Seifkar, N., Field, R.P., Barrett, S.R.H. and Herzog, H.J. (2015) Biomass Logistics Analysis for Large Scale Biofuel Production: Case Study of Loblolly Pine and Switchgrass. Bioresource Technology, 183, 1-9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2015.02.032
Vogel, K.P. (2004) Switchgrass. In: Moser, L.E., Burson, B.L. and Sollenberger, L.E., Eds., Warm-Season (C4) Grasses, ASA-CSSA-SSSA, Madison 2. https://acsess.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/book/10.2134/agronmonogr45
Redcay, S., Koirala, A. and Liu, J. (2018) Effects of Roll and Flail Conditioning Systems on Mowing and Baling of Miscanthus × giganteus Feedstock. Biosystems Engineering, 172, 134-143. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biosystemseng.2018.06.009
Hancock, D.W. (2017) The Management of Switchgrass in Georgia. Georgia Cooperative Extension Bulletin, No. 1358.
Wolf, D.D. and Fiske, D.A. (1995) Planting and Managing Switchgrass for Forage Wildlife, and Conservation. Virginia Cooperative Extension Pub. No. 418-013, Blacksburg.
Mitchell, R., Schmer, M. and Monti, A. (2012) Switchgrass: A Valuable Biomass Crop for Energy. Green Energy and Technology, Vol. 94, Springer, Berlin, 113-127. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4471-2903-5
Douglas, J., Lemunyon, J., Wynia, R. and Salon, P. (2009) Planting and Managing Switchgrass as a Biomass Energy Crop. USDA-NRCS: Plant Materials Program, Technical Note No. 3. https://forages.ca.uky.edu/files/opennonwebcontent1.pdf
Jacobson, M. (2013) NEWBio Energy Crop Profile: Switchgrass. Penn State Extension. https://extension.psu.edu/newbio-energy-crop-profile-switchgrass
Pennington, D. (Michigan S.U.E.) (2015) When to Harvest Switchgrass. https://www.canr.msu.edu/news/when_to_harvest_switchgrass
Renz, M., Undersander, D. and Casler, M. (2009) Establishing and Managing Switchgrass. In UW Extension Factsheet. https://fyi.extension.wisc.edu/forage/establishing-and-managing-switchgrass/
Sands, R.D., Malcolm, S.A., Suttles, S.A. and Marshall, E. (2017) Dedicated Energy Crops and Competition for Agricultural Land. USDA Economic Research Service, Economic Research Report No. (ERR-223) 72. https://www.ers.usda.gov/publications/pub-details/?pubid=81902
Vogel, K.P., Sarath, G., Saathoff, A.J. and Mitchell, R.B. (2010) Switchgrass. In: Halford, N.G. and Karp, A., Eds., Energy Crops, The Royal Society of Chemistry, London, 341-380. https://doi.org/10.1039/9781849732048-00341
Lin, T., Mathanker, S.K., Rodriguez, L.F., Shastri, Y.N., Hansen, A.C. and Ting, K. (2013) Impact of Harvesting Technologies on Biomass Feedstock Logistics. American Society of Agricultural and Biological Engineers Annual International Meeting 2013, Kansas City, 21-24 July 2013, 1-6. https://doi.org/10.13031/aim.20131592212
Goodwin, P. (2015) Buyer’s Guide to Hay Equipment. Tractor Tools Direct. https://www.extension.iastate.edu/smallfarms/buyers-guide-hay-equipment
Redcay, S. and Liu, J. (2023) The Effect of Mechanical Conditioning on Physical Conditions of Miscanthus Plants. American Journal of Plant Sciences, 14, 77-88.
U.S. Department of Energy (2011) U.S. Billion-Ton Update: Biomass Supply for a Bioenergy and Bioproducts Industry. R.D. Perlack and B.J. Stokes (Leads), ORNL/ TM-2011/224. Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, 227 p.
Adkins, A.B. (2014) Switchgrass Harvest Timing & Harvest/Storage Method Influence Quantity, Quality & Sustainability Aspects of a Lignocellulosic Ethanol Production System in the Northern Corn Belt/Great Lakes Region. Michigan State University, East Lansing.
Schroeder, J.W. (2013) Haylage and Other Fermented Forages. Quality Forage AS1252, 1-8.
Chen, Y., Sharma-Shivappa, R.R. and Chen, C. (2007) Ensiling Agricultural Residues for Bioethanol Production. Applied Biochemistry and Biotechnology, 143, 80-92. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12010-007-0030-7
Digman, M.F., Shinners, K.J., Muck, R.E. and Dien, B.S. (2010) Full-Scale On-Farm Pretreatment of Perennial Grasses with Dilute Acid for Fuel Ethanol Production. Bioenergy Research, 3, 335-341. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12155-010-9092-4
Brownell, D., Liu, J., Hilton, J.W., Richard, T.L., Cauffman, G.R. and Macafee, B.R. (2012) Evaluation of Two Forage Harvesting Systems for Herbaceous Biomass Harvesting. ASABE Annual International Meeting 2009, 55, 1651-1658.
Collins, M. and Owens, V.N. (2003) Preservation of Forage as Hay and Silage. In: Barnes, R.F., Nelson, C.J., Collins, M. and Moore, K.J., Eds., Forages: An Introduction to Grassland Agriculture, 6th Edition, Iowa State University Press, Ames, 443-471.
Hess, J., Kenney, K., Ovard, L., Searcy, E. and Wright, C. (2010) Uniform-Format Bioenergy Feedstock Supply System: A Commodity-Scale Design to Produce and Infrastructure-Compatible Bulk Solid from Lignocellulosic Biomass (Issue September).
Adler, P.R., Sanderson, M.A., Boateng, A.A., Weimer, P.J. and Jung, H.J.G. (2006) Biomass Yield and Biofuel Quality of Switchgrass Harvested in Fall or Spring. Agronomy Journal, 98, 1518-1525. https://doi.org/10.2134/agronj2005.0351
Rotz, C.A. and Muck, R.E. (1994) Changes in Forage Quality during Harvest and Storage. In: Fahey Jr., G.C., Ed., Forage Quality, Evaluation, and Utilization, American Society of Agronomy Inc., Madison, 828-868. https://doi.org/10.2134/1994.foragequality.c20
Anderson, P.M., Kjelgaard, W.L., Hoffman, L.D., Wislon, L.L. and Harpster, H.W. (1981) Harvesting Practices and Round Bale Losses. Transactions of the ASAE, 24, 841-842. https://doi.org/10.13031/2013.34349
Collins, M., Paulson, W.H., Finner, M.F., Jorgensen, N.A. and Keuler, C.R. (1986) Moisture and Storage Effects on Dry Matter and Quality Losses of Alfalfa in Round Bales. Paper—American Society of Agricultural Engineers, 30, 913-917. https://doi.org/10.13031/2013.30498
Collins, M., Swetnam, L.D., Turner, G.M., Hancock, J.N. and Shearer, S.A. (1995) Storage Method Effects on Dry Matter and Quality Losses of Tall Fescue Round Bales. Journal of Production Agriculture, 8, 507-514. https://doi.org/10.2134/jpa1995.0507
Harrigan, T.M. and Rotz, C.A. (1994) Net, Plastic, and Twine-Wrapped Large Round Bale Storage Loss. Applied Engineering in Agriculture, 10, 189-194. https://doi.org/10.13031/2013.25840
Huhnke, R.L. (1988) Large Round Bale Alfalfa Hay Storage. Applied Engineering in Agriculture, 4, 316-318.
Huhnke, R.L. (1990) Round Bale Bermudagrass Hay Storage Losses. Applied Engineering in Agriculture, 6, 569-574. https://doi.org/10.13031/2013.26430
Huhnke, R.L. (1993) Round Bale Orientation Effects on Alfalfa Hay Storage. Applied Engineering in Agriculture, 9, 349-351.
Russell, J.R., Yoder, S.J. and Marley, S.J. (1990) The Effects of Bale Density, Type of Binding and Storage Surface on the Chemical Composition, Nutrient Recovery and Digestibility of Large Round Hay Bales. Animal Feed Science and Technology, 29, 131-145. https://doi.org/10.1016/0377-8401(90)90099-T
Shinners, K.J., Huenink, B.M., Muck, R.E. and Albrecht, K.A. (2009) Storage Characteristics of Large Round Alfalfa Bales: Dry Hay. Transactions of the ASABE, 52, 409-418.
Taylor, R.K., Blasi, D.A. and Shroyer, J.P. (1994) Storage Losses in Net-Wrapped, Large Round Bales of alfalfa. Applied Engineering in Agriculture, 10, 317-320. https://doi.org/10.4148/2378-5977.2099
Turner, J.E., Poore, M.H. and Benson, G.A. (2007) Dry Matter Recovery, Nutritive Value, and Economics of Cool-Season Grass Hay Stored for Seven or Fifteen Months in the Southern Appalachian Mountains. The Professional Animal Scientist, 23, 686-695. https://doi.org/10.15232/S1080-7446(15)31041-X
Ball, D.M., Bade, D.H., Lacefield, G.D., Martin, N.P. and Pinkerton, B.W. (1998) Minimizing Losses in Hay Storage and Feeding. National Forage Information Circular 98-1.
Coblentz, W.K., Jennings, J.A., Davis, G.V., Hellwig, D.H. and Cassida, K.A. (2002) Management of Hay Production. Arkansas Cooperative Extension Service, #MP434.
Collins, M. (1995) Hay Preservation Effects on Yield and Quality. In: Moore, K.J. and Peterson, M.A., Eds., Post-Harvest Physiology and Preservation of Forages, American Society of Agronomy Inc., Madison, Vol. 22, 67-89. https://doi.org/10.2135/cssaspecpub22.c4
Pogue, D.E., Ivy, R.L., Evans, R.R. and Bagley, C.P. (1996) The Dollars and Sense of Hay Production. 1-24.
Coblentz, W.K. (2009) Effects of Wrapping Method and Soil Contact on Hay Stored in Large Round Bales in Central Wisonsin. ASABE, 25, 835-850.
Khanchi, A., Jones, C.L., Sharma, B. and Huhnke, R.L. (2013) Characteristics and Compositional Change in Round and Square Switchgrass Bales Stored in South Central Oklahoma. Biomass and Bioenergy, 58, 117-127. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biombioe.2013.10.017
Sahoo, K. and Mani, S. (2017) Techno-Economic Assessment of Biomass Bales Storage Systems for a Large-Scale Biorefinery. Biofuels, Bioproducts and Biorefining, 11, 417-429. https://doi.org/10.1002/bbb.1751
Staudenmeyer, D.M. (Montana S.U.-B.) (2017) Utilizing Gene Suppression Technology and Hay Storage Techniques to Improve Forage Quality and Animal Performance. https://scholarworks.montana.edu/xmlui/handle/1/13516
Argonne National Labortory (2018) The Greenhouse Gases, Regulated Emissions, and Energy Use in Technologies (GREET) Model. Argonne National Laboratory, Lemont. https://greet.es.anl.gov/
Malladi, K.T. and Sowlati, T. (2018) Biomass Logistics: A Review of Important Features, Optimization Modeling and the New Trends. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 94, 587-599. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2018.06.052
Akay, A.E. (1998) Estimating Machine Rates and Production for Selected Forest Harvesting Machines Operating in the Western United States and Determining the Most Economical Machine Combinations under Representative Conditions in Turkey. Oregon State University, Corvallis.
Turhollow, A.F., Wilkerson, E. and Sokhansanj, S. (2009) Cost Methodology for Biomass Feedstocks: Herbaceous Crops and Agricultural Residues (Issue December).
Martelli, R., Bentini, M. and Monti, A. (2015) Harvest Storage and Handling of Round and Square Bales of Giant Reed and Switchgrass: An Economic and Technical Evaluation. Biomass and Bioenergy, 83, 551-558. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biombioe.2015.11.008
Sokhansanj, S., Kumar, A. and Turhollow, A.F. (2006) Development and Implementation of Integrated Biomass Supply Analysis and Logistics Model (IBSAL). Biomass and Bioenergy, 30, 838-847. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biombioe.2006.04.004
Griffith, A.P., Haque, M. and Epplin, F.M. (2014) Cost to Produce and Deliver Cellulosic Feedstock to a Biorefinery: Switchgrass and Forage Sorghum. Applied Energy, 127, 44-54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2014.03.068
Grisso, R.D., Webb, E.G., Cundiff, J.S. and Sokhansanj, S. (2013) Parametric Study of Machinery Management Relationships on Forage Equipment. American Society of Agricultural and Biological Engineers Annual International Meeting 2013, ASABE 2013, Vol. 1, 26-37. https://doi.org/10.13031/aim.20131539003
Langholtz, M., Stokes, B. and Eaton, L. (2016) 2016 Billion-Ton Report: Advancing Domestic Resources for a Thriving Bioeconomy (Executive Summary). Industrial Biotechnology, 12, 282-289. https://doi.org/10.1089/ind.2016.29051.doe
Sokhansanj, S., Mani, S., Turhollow, A.F., Bransby, D., Lynd, L. and Laser, M. (2009) Large-Scale Production, Harvest and Logistics of Switchgrass (Panicum virgatum L.)—Current Technology and Envisioning a Mature Technology. Biofuels, Bioproducts and Biorefining, 6, 124-141. https://doi.org/10.1002/bbb
Wang, Y., Wang, J., Schuler, J., Hartley, D., Volk, T. and Eisenbies, M. (2020) Optimization of Harvest and Logistics for Multiple Lignocellulosic Biomass Feedstocks in the Northeastern United States. Energy, 197, Article ID: 117260. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2020.117260
Cundiff, J.S. and Marsh, L.S. (1996) Harvest and Storage Costs for Bales of Switchgrass in the Southeastern United States. Bioresource Technology, 56, 95-101. https://doi.org/10.1016/0960-8524(95)00166-2
Kaliyan, N., Morey, R.V. and Tiffany, D.G. (2015) Economic and Environmental Analysis for Corn Stover and Switchgrass Supply Logistics. Bioenergy Research, 8, 1433-1448. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12155-015-9609-y
Griffel, L.M., Vazhnik, V., Hartley, D.S., Hansen, J.K. and Roni, M. (2020) Agricultural Field Shape Descriptors as Predictors of Field Efficiency for Perennial Grass Harvesting: An Empirical Proof. Computers and Electronics in Agriculture, 168, Article ID: 105088. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compag.2019.105088
Brownell, D.K. and Liu, J. (2011) Field Test and Cost Analysis of Four Harvesting Options for Herbaceous Biomass Handling. International Journal of Agricultural and Biological Engineering, 4, 58-68. https://doi.org/10.3965/j.issn.1934-6344.2011.03.0-0
Seyyedhasani, H., Digman, M. and Luck, B.D. (2021) Utility of a Commercial Unmanned Aerial Vehicle for In-Field Localization of Biomass Bales. Computers and Electronics in Agriculture, 180, Article ID: 105898. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compag.2020.105898
USGS (2017) USGS Global Positioning Application and Practice. U.S. Department of the Interior|U.S. Geological Survey. https://water.usgs.gov/osw/gps/