High-Resolution <sup>1</sup>H NMR Investigations of the Oxidative Consumption of Salivary Biomolecules by a Tooth-Whitening Formulation: Relevance to Safety Issues — Oak Academic Publishing
Research ArticleOpen AccessGoogle Scholar indexed
High-Resolution <sup>1</sup>H NMR Investigations of the Oxidative Consumption of Salivary Biomolecules by a Tooth-Whitening Formulation: Relevance to Safety Issues
A multicomponent evaluation of the oxidative consumption of salivary biomolecules by a hydrogen peroxide (H 2 O 2 )-containing tooth-whitening formulation has been performed using high-resolution proton (1H) nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy. Unstimulated human saliva samples (n = 10) were treated with aliquots of supernatants derived from 1) the H 2 O 2 -containing whitening gel, 2) the corresponding tooth-whitening accelerant solution containing an amino-alcohol activator, and 3) a combination of these product agents pre-mixed in the recommended manner. 600 MHz 1H NMR spectra acquired on these samples demonstrated that H 2 O 2 present in the whitening gel gave rise to the oxidative decarboxylation of salivary pyruvate (to acetate and CO 2 ), the direct oxidation of trimethylamine and methionine (to trimethylamine-N-oxide and methionine sulphoxide respectively), and the indirect oxidative consumption of lactate and carbohydrates in general. Experiments conducted on a chemical model system confirmed the consumption of pyruvate by added H 2 O 2 , and also revealed that this method could be employed for determinations of the H 2 O 2 content of tooth-whitening products. In conclusion, high-resolution 1 H NMR analysis provides much valuable molecular information regarding the fate of tooth-whitening oxidants in human saliva, and also permits an assessment of the ability of endogenous antioxidants therein to protect against any soft tissue damage arising from the possible leakage of H 2 O 2 from tooth-whitening application trays.
B. A. Matis, M. A. Cochran and G. Eckert, “Review of the Effectiveness of Various Tooth-Whitening Systems,” Operative Dentistry, Vol. 34, No. 2, 2009, pp. 230-235. doi:10.2341/08-74
C. J. Tredwin, S. Naik, N. J. Lewis and C. Scully, “Hydrogen Peroxide Tooth-Whitening (Bleaching) Products: Review of Adverse Effects and Safety Issues,” British Dental Journal, Vol. 200, No. 7, 2006, pp. 371-376. doi:10.1038/sj.bdj.4813423
M. Grootveld, A. Sheerin, M. Atherton, A. D. Millar, E. J. Lynch, D. R. Blake and D. P. Naughton, “Applications of High Resolution NMR Analysis to the Study of Inflammatory Diseases at the Molecular Level,” In: R. J. H. Clark and R. Hester, Eds., Biomedical Applications of NMR Spectroscopy, Advances in Spectroscopy, John Wiley and Sons Ltd., Chichester, Vol. 25, 1996, pp. 295-327.
J. N. S. Evans, “Biomolecular NMR Spectroscopy,” Biophysical Journal, Vol. 70, No. 6, 1996, pp. 2996-2997. doi:10.1016/S0006-3495(96)79871-5
J. K. Nicholson, P. J. Foxall, M. Spraul, R. D. Farrant and J. C. Lindon, “750 MHz 1 H and 1 H- 13 C NMR Spectroscopy of Human Blood Plasma,” Analytical Chemistry, Vol. 67, No. 5, 1995, pp. 793-811. doi:10.1021/ac00101a004
F. Savorani, M. Kristensen, F. H. Larsen, A. Astrup and S. B. Englesen, “High Throughput Prediction of Chylomicron Triglycerides in Human Plasma by Nuclear Magnetic Resonance and Chemometrics,” Nutrition and Metabolism, Vol. 7, No. 43, 2010, pp. 1-8.
S. Zhang, C. Zheng, I. R. Lanza, N. K. Sreekumaran, D. Raftery and O. Vitek, “Interdependence of Signal Processing and Analysis of Urine 1H NMR Spectra for Metabolic Profiling,” Analytical Chemistry, Vol. 81, No. 15, 2009, pp. 6080-6088. doi:10.1021/ac900424c
G. E. J. Willem, C. Schoonen, P. A. M. Kloks, J.-P. H. T. M. Ploemen, M. J. Smit, P. G. Zandberg, G. J. J. Horbach, J.-R. Mellema, C. Thijssen-van Zuylen, A. C. Tas, J. H. J. van Nesselrooij and J. T. W. E. Vogels, “Uniform Procedure of 1H NMR Analysis of Rat Urine and Toxicometabonomics Part II: Comparison of NMR Profiles for Classification of Hepatotoxicity,” Toxicological Sciences, Vol. 98, No. 1, 2007, pp. 286-297. doi:10.1093/toxsci/kfm077
D. Naughton, M. Whelan, E. C. Smith, R. B. Williams, D. R. Blake and M. Grootveld, “An Investigation of the Abnormal Metabolic Status of Synovial Fluid from Patients with Rheumatoid Arthritis by High Field Proton Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy,” FEBS Letters, Vol. 317, No. 1-2, 1993, pp. 135-138. doi:10.1016/0014-5793(93)81508-W
M. Grootveld and C. J. Silwood, “1H NMR Analysis as a Diagnostic Probe for Human Saliva,” Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications, Vol. 329, No. 1, 2005, pp. 1-5. doi:10.1016/j.bbrc.2005.01.112
G. N. Jenkins, “Saliva. The Physiology and Biochemistry of the Mouth,” 4th Edition, Blackwell Scientific, Oxford, 1978.
W. P. Aue, E. Bartholdi and R. R. Ernst, “Two Dimensional Spectroscopy. Application to Nuclear Magnetic Resonance,” Journal of Chemical Physics, Vol. 64, No. 5, 1976, pp. 2229-2247. doi:10.1063/1.432450
F. C. Gibson and C. A. Genco, “The Genus Porphyromonas,” In: M. Dworkin, S. Falkow, E. Rosenberg, K.-H. Schleifer and E. Stackebrandt, Eds., The Prokaryotes Volume 7: Proteobacteria: Delta, Epsilon Subclass, Part 6, Springer, Singapore City, 2006, pp. 428-454.
E. L. Hendrickson, Q. W. Xia, T. S. Wand, R. J. Lamont and M. Hackett, “Pathway Analysis for Intracellular Porphyromonas gingivalis Using a Strain ATCC 33277 Specific Database,” BioMed Central Microbiology, Vol. 9, 2009, p. 185.
J. D. Bell, J. C. C. Brown, J. K. Nicholson and P. J. Sadler, “Assignment of Resonances for ‘Acute-Phase’ Glycoproteins in High Resolution Proton NMR Spectra of Human Blood Plasma,” FEBS Letters, Vol. 215, No. 2, 1987, pp. 311-315. doi:10.1016/0014-5793(87)80168-0
C. J. L. Silwood, E. Lynch, A. W. D. Claxson and M. C. Grootveld. “1H and 13C NMR Spectroscopic Analysis of Human Saliva,” Journal of Dental Research, Vol. 81, No. 6, 2002, pp. 422-427. doi:10.1177/154405910208100613
R. A. D. Williams and J. C. Elliot, “Basic and Applied Dental Biochemistry,” Churchill Livingstone, Edinburgh, 1979.
J. R. Turnlund, C. L. Keen and R. G. Smith, “Copper Status and Urinary and Salivary Copper in Young Men at Three Levels of Dietary Copper,” American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, Vol. 51, No. 4, 1990, pp. 658-664.
S. Dreizen, H. A. Spies Jr. and T. D. Spies, “The Copper and Cobalt Levels of Human Saliva and Dental Caries Activity,” Journal of Dental Research, Vol. 31, No. 1, 1952, pp. 137-142. doi:10.1177/00220345520310011001
E. Lynch, A. Sheerin, C. J. Silwood and M. Grootveld, “Multicomponent Evaluations of the Oxidising Actions and Status of a Peroxoborate-Containing Tooth-Whitening System in Whole Human Saliva using High Resolution Proton NMR Spectroscopy,” Journal of Inorganic Biochemistry, Vol. 73, No. 1-2, 1999, pp. 65-84. doi:10.1016/S0162-0134(98)10092-2
B. Halliwell and M. Grootveld, “The Measurement of Free Radical Reactions in Humans,” FEBS Letters, Vol. 231, No. 1, 1987, pp. 9-14. doi:10.1016/0014-5793(87)81455-2
E. Lynch, A. Sheerin, M. Atherton, J. Hawkes, P. Haycock and M. C. Grootveld, “Molecular Mechanisms Associated with the Bleaching Actions of Commercially-Available Whitening Oral Health Care Products,” Journal of the Irish Dental Association, Vol. 41, No. 4, 1996, pp. 94-102.
J. Grigor and A. J. Roberts, “Reduction in the Levels of Oral Malodor Precursors by Hydrogen Peroxide: In-Vitro and In-Vivo Assessments,” Journal of Clinical Dentistry, Vol. 3, No. 4, 1992, pp. 111-115.
V. B. Haywood and H. O. Heymann, “Nightguard Vital Bleaching,” Quintessence International, Vol. 20, No. 3, 1989, pp. 173-176.
J. Howard, “Patient-Applied Tooth Whiteners,” Journal of the American Dental Association, Vol. 132, No. 2, 1992, pp. 57-60.
J. W. Reinhardt, S. C. Eivins, E. J. Swift and G. E. De- nehy, “Clinical Study of Nightguard Vital Bleaching,” Quintessence International, Vol. 24, 1993, pp. 379-384.
G. M. Kowitz, S. A. Nathoo and K. N. Rustogi, “Clinical Comparison of Colgate Platinum Tooth Whitening Sys- tem and Rembrant Gel Plus,” Compendium of Continuing Dental Education, Vol. 15, No. 17, 1994, pp. S646-S651.
C. M. Russell, G. L. Dickinson, M. H. Johnson, et al., “Dentist-Supervised Home Bleaching with Ten Per Cent Carbamide Peroxide Gel: A Six Month Study,” Journal of Esthetic and Restorative Dentistry, Vol. 8, No. 4, 1996, pp. 177-182. doi:10.1111/j.1708-8240.1996.tb00422.x
B. A. Matis, M. A. Cochran, G. Eckert and T. J. Carlson, “The Efficacy and Safety of a 10% Carbamide Peroxide Bleaching Gel,” Quintessence International, Vol. 29, No. 7, 1998, pp. 555-563.
H. O. Heymann, E. J. Swift, S. C. Bayne, et al. “Clinical Evaluation of Two Carbamide Peroxide Tooth Whitening Agents,” Compendium of Continuing Dental Education, Vol. 19, No. 4, 1998, pp. 359-362.
A. J. McCaslin, V. B. Haywood, B. J. G. Potter, L. Dickenson and C. M. Russell, “Assessing Dentin Colour Changes from Nightguard Vital Bleaching,” Journal of the American Dental Association,” Vol. 130, No. 10, 1999, pp. 1485-1490.
R. W. Gerlach and X. Zhou, “Vital Bleaching with Whi- tening Strips: Summary of Clinical Research on Effe- ctiveness and Tolerability,” Journal of Contemporary Dental Practice, Vol. 2, No. 3, 2001, pp. 1-15.
V. B. Haywood, “History, Safety and Effectiveness of Current Bleaching Techniques and Application of the Nightguard Vital Bleaching Technique,” Quintessence International, Vol. 27, 1992, pp. 471-488.
M. Sulieman, M. Addy and J. S. Rees, “Development and Evaluation of a New Method In Vitro to Study the Effectiveness of Tooth Bleaching,” Journal of Dentistry, Vol. 31, 2003, pp. 415-422. doi:10.1016/S0300-5712(03)00069-1
L. Tam, “The Safety of Home Bleaching Techniques,” Journal of the Canadian Dental Association, Vol. 65, No. 8, 1999, pp. 453-455.
R. H. Leonard, V. B. Haywood and C. Phillips, “Risk Factors for Developing Tooth Sensitivity and Gingival Irritation Associated with Nightguard Vital Bleaching,” Quintessence International, Vol. 28, No. 8, 1997, pp. 527-534.
L. Tam, “Clinical Trial of Three 10% Carbamide Peroxide Bleaching Products,” Journal of the Canadian Dental Association, Vol. 65, No. 4, 1999, pp. 201-205.
S. C. Cohen and C. Chase, “Human Pulpal Responses to Bleaching Procedures on Vital Teeth,” Journal of Endo- dontics, Vol. 5, No. 5, 1979, pp. 134-138. doi:10.1016/S0099-2399(79)80033-3
J. R. Schulte, D. B. Morrissette, E. J. Gasior and M. V. Czajewski, “The Effects of Bleaching Application Time on the Dental Pulp,” Journal of the American Dental Association, Vol. 125, No. 10, 1994, pp. 1330-1335.
W. Thitinanthapan, P. Satamanont and N. Vongsavan, “In Vitro Penetration of the Pulp Chamber by Three Brands of Carbamide Peroxide,” Journal of Esthetic and Res- torative Dentistry, Vol. 11, No. 5, 1999, pp. 259-264. doi:10.1111/j.1708-8240.1999.tb00407.x