Challenges of the Global COVID-19 Pandemic and Invasive Fungal Pathogens in SARS-COV-2 Associations: A Dangerous Relationship — Oak Academic Publishing
Research ArticleOpen AccessGoogle Scholar indexed
Challenges of the Global COVID-19 Pandemic and Invasive Fungal Pathogens in SARS-COV-2 Associations: A Dangerous Relationship
Faculdade EducareMT, Cuiabá, Brazil
,
Faculdade EducareMT, Cuiabá, Brazil
,
Faculdade EducareMT, Cuiabá, Brazil
,
Faculdade EducareMT, Cuiabá, Brazil
,
Faculdade EducareMT, Cuiabá, Brazil
,
Centro Universitário de Várzea Grande (UNIVAG), Várzea Grande, Brazil
,
Laboratório Central de Saúde Pública do Estado de Mato Grosso (LACEN), Cuiabá, Brazil
,
Instituto Ciências Biomédicas (ICB) Universidade de São Paulo (USP), São Paulo, Brazil
,
Centro Universitário de Várzea Grande (UNIVAG), Várzea Grande, Brazil
,
Instituto Adolfo Lutz, Center of Parasitology and Micology, Micology Nucleus, São Paulo, Brazil
,
Laboratory Carlos Chagas, Sabin Group, Cuiabá, Brazil
,
Research Laboratory, Medical School, Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso (UFMT), Cuiabá, Brazil
1 Faculdade EducareMT, Cuiabá, Brazil
2 Faculdade EducareMT, Cuiabá, Brazil
3 Faculdade EducareMT, Cuiabá, Brazil
4 Faculdade EducareMT, Cuiabá, Brazil
5 Faculdade EducareMT, Cuiabá, Brazil
6 Centro Universitário de Várzea Grande (UNIVAG), Várzea Grande, Brazil
7 Laboratório Central de Saúde Pública do Estado de Mato Grosso (LACEN), Cuiabá, Brazil
8 Instituto Ciências Biomédicas (ICB) Universidade de São Paulo (USP), São Paulo, Brazil
9 Centro Universitário de Várzea Grande (UNIVAG), Várzea Grande, Brazil
10 Instituto Adolfo Lutz, Center of Parasitology and Micology, Micology Nucleus, São Paulo, Brazil
11 Laboratory Carlos Chagas, Sabin Group, Cuiabá, Brazil
12 Research Laboratory, Medical School, Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso (UFMT), Cuiabá, Brazil
Background: COVID-19 is a rapidly transmissible pneumonia-like illness caused by SARS-CoV-2 that out broke in China in 2019 and is currently circulating worldwide. In the current context of the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic, complications are observed in clinical settings for the treatment of severe COVID-19 disease in nosocomial settings, due to cases of fungal co-infections. Objective: To carry out a review on fungal infections associated with respiratory infections caused by COVID-19 (Sars-Cov-2) and their aggravation. Methodology: The purpose of this study is to inform the reader about the characteristics of SARS-CoV-2 and the main fungal species that are affecting patients undergoing treatment for severe COVID-19, provoking discussion of the importance of the proposed topic, in relation to co-infections by different fungal microorganisms. Result: 80 scientific studies were selected, resulting from patients with COVID-19 and most commonly observed in patients with a history of comorbidities such as diabetes mellitus , hypertension, kidney disease, severe liver disease, oncological diseases, obesity and with severe COVID-19. These data do not represent the total number of records of the disease in the world, but cases reported by researchers in their series, showing the overlapping of fungal co-infection through the compromised immune status due to the use of therapeutic drugs, dysregulation of the microbiota, age of patients and the severity itself of the severe inflammation caused by COVID-19. Conclusion: The immunosuppression caused by the infection of COVID-19 concomitant with its therapy through corticosteroid therapy and comorbidities of the patients made fungal infections more susceptible, and these interfere in the evolution of the case and in the treatment of COVID-19, being relevant to distinguish secondary infections to therapy and the best possible reconstitution of the clinical picture.
GBDLCC (2022) Global Burden of Disease Long COVID Collaborators. Estimated Global Proportions of Individuals with Persistent Fatigue, Cognitive, and Respiratory Symptom Clusters Following Symptomatic COVID-19 in 2020 and 2021. JAMA, 328, 1604-1615.
Ali, G.A., Husain, A., Salah, H. and Goravey, W. (2021) Trichosporon asahii Fungemia and COVID-19 Co-Infection: An Emerging Fungal Pathogen; Case Report and Review of the Literature. IDCases, 25, e01244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.idcr.2021.e01244
Moser, D., Biere, K., Han, B., et al. (2021) COVID-19 Impairs the Immune Response to Candida Albicans. Frontiers in Immunology, 12, Article ID: 640644. https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2021.640644
Tavares, R.M., Leite, C.E.A., Tavares, R.M., Oliveira, P.L. and Quental, O.B. (2021) Aspergillosis and Mucormycosis-Systemic Mycoses of Importance in COVID-19: Review Article. Research, Society and Development, 10, 1-6. https://doi.org/10.33448/rsd-v10i7.17101
WHO (2022) World Health Organization. WHO Health Emergencies Dashboard WHO Coronavirus (COVID-19) Dashboard. https://covid19.who.int/
ICTV (2022) International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses. Virus Taxonomy: 2021 Release. ICTV 2021 Master Species List (MSL37). https://ictv.global/taxonomy
WHO (2022) World Health Organization. Tracking SARS-CoV-2 Variants. https://www.who.int/emergencies/diseases/novel-coronavirus-2019
PAHO (2021) Pan American Health Organization. WHO Announces Simple, Easy-to-Pronounce Nomenclatures for SARS-CoV-2 Variants of Interest and Concern and-Easy-to-Pronounce-for-Interest-Variants.
Neufeld, P.M. (2020) COVID-19 and the Diagnosis of Invasive Pulmonary Aspergillosis. RBAC, 52, 173-185. https://doi.org/10.21877/2448-3877.20200019
Richardson, M.D. and Warnock, D.W. (2003) Fungal Infection: Diagnosis and Treatment. 3rd Edition, Blackwell Publishing Ltd., Oxford, 1-366. https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470755259
Latgé, J.P. and Chamilos, G. (2019) Aspergillus fumigatus and Aspergillosis in 2019. Clinical Microbiology Reviews, 33, E00140-18. https://doi.org/10.1128/CMR.00140-18
Chong, W.H. and Neu, K.P. (2021) Incidence, Diagnosis and Outcomes of COVID-19-Associated Pulmonary Aspergillosis (CAPA): A Systematic Review. Journal of Hospital Infection, 113, 115-129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhin.2021.04.012
Prakash, H. and Chakrabarti, A. (2019) Global Epidemiology of Mucormycosis. Journal of Fungi (Basel), 5, Article 26. https://doi.org/10.3390/jof5010026
Prakash, H. and Chakrabarti, A. (2021) Epidemiology of Mucormycosis in India. Microorganisms, 9, Article 523. https://doi.org/10.3390/microorganisms9030523
ANVISA (Brazil) (2021) Technical Note GVIMS/GGTES/ANVISA No.04/2021. Guidance for Surveillance, Identification, Prevention and Control of Invasive Fungal Infections in Healthcare Settings in the Context of the COVID-19 Pandemic. https://www.gov.br/anvisa/pt-br/centraisdeconteudo/publicacoes/servicosdesaude/notas-tecnicas/2021/nota-tecnica-04-2021-infeccoes-fungicas-e-covid19.pdf
CDC/USA (2021) Centers of Disease Control and Prevention. Invasive Candidiasis Statistics. https://www.cdc.gov/fungal/diseases/candidiasis/invasive/statistics.html
Caceres, D.H., Forsberg, K., Welsh, R.M., et al. (2019) Candida auris: A Review of Recommendations for Detection and Control in Healthcare Settings. Journal of Fungi (Basel), 5, Article 111. https://doi.org/10.3390/jof5040111
Chen, X., Liao, B., Cheng, L., et al. (2020) A Microbial Coinfection in COVID-19. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology, 104, 7777-7785. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00253-020-10814-6
Pemán, J., Ruiz-Gaitán, A., García-Vidal, C., et al. (2020) Fungal Co-Infection in COVID-19 Patients: Should We Be Concerned? Revista Iberoamericana de Micología, 37, 41-46. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.riam.2020.07.001
Hoenigl, M., Seidel, D., Sprute, R., Cunha, C., Oliverio, M., Goldman, G.H., et al. (2022) COVID-19-Associated Fungal Infections. Nature Microbiology, 7, 1127-1140. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41564-022-01172-2
Lv, L., Gu, S., Jiang, H., Yan, R., Chen, Y., Chen, Y., Luo, R., Huang, C., et al. (2021) Gut Mycobiota Alterations in Patients with COVID-19 and H1N1 Infections and Their Associations with Clinical Features. Communications Biology, 4, Article No. 480. https://doi.org/10.1038/s42003-021-02036-x
Kong, H.H. and Segre, J.A. (2020) Cultivating Fungal Research. Science, 368, 365-366. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aaz8086
Soltani, S., Zakeri, A., Zandi, M., Kesheh, M.M., Tabibzadeh, A., Dastranj, M., et al. (2021) The Role of Bacterial and Fungal Human Respiratory Microbiota in COVID-19 Patients. Biomed Research International, 2021, Article ID: 6670798. https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/6670798
Marr, K.A., Carter, R.A., Crippa, F., Wald, A. and Corey, L. (2002) Epidemiology and Outcome of Fungal Infections in Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplant Recipients. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 34, 909-917. https://doi.org/10.1086/339202
Song, G., Liang, G. and Liu, W. (2020) Fungal Co-Infections Associated with Global COVID-19 Pandemic: A Clinical and Diagnostic Perspective from China. Mycopathologia, 185, 599-606. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11046-020-00462-9
Lansbury, L., Lim, B., Baskaran, V. and Lim, W.S. (2020) Coinfections in People with COVID-19: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Journal of Infection, 81, 266-275. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jinf.2020.05.046
Nazari, T., Sadeghi, F., Izadi, A., Sameni, S. and Mahmoudi, S. (2022) COVID-19-Associated Fungal Infections in Iran: A Systematic Review. PLOS ONE, 17, e0271333. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0271333
Koehler, P., Cornely, O.A., Böttiger, B.W., Dusse, F., Eichenauer, D.A., Fuchs, F., Hallek, M., Jung, N., Klein, F., Persigehl, T., Rybniker, J., Kochanek, M., Böll, B. and Shimabukuro-Vornhagen, A. (2020) COVID-19 Associated Pulmonary Aspergillosis. Mycoses, 63, 528-534. https://doi.org/10.1111/myc.13096
Mitaka, H., Perlman, D.C., Javaid, W. and Salomon, N. (2020) Putative Invasive Pulmonary Aspergillosis in Critically Ill Patients with COVID-19: An Observational Study from New York City. Mycoses, 63, 1368-1372. https://doi.org/10.1111/myc.13185
Santana, M.F., Pivoto, G., Araújo, M.A., Djane, A., Baía-da-Silva, D.C., da Silva Borba, M.G., Val, F.A., Brito-Sousa, J.D., et al. (2020) Confirmed Invasive Pulmonary Aspergillosis and COVID-19: The Value of Postmortem Findings to Support Antemortem Management. Revista da Sociedade Brasileira de Medicina Tropical, 53, 1-4. https://doi.org/10.1590/0037-8682-0401-2020
Iturrieta-González, I., Giacaman, A., Godoy-Martínez, P., Vega, F., Sepúlveda, M., Santos, C., Toledo, V., Rivera, G., Ortega, L., San Martín, A., Bahamondes, V., Collao, F., Sánchez, R. and Fonseca-Salamanca, F. (2022) Penicillium digitatum, First Clinical Report in Chile: Fungal Co-Infection in COVID-19 Patient. Journal of Fungi (Basel), 8, Article 961. https://doi.org/10.3390/jof8090961
Lyratzopoulos, G., Ellis, M., Nerringer, R. and Denning, D.W. (2002) Invasive Infection Due to Penicillium Species Other than P. marneffei. Journal of Infection, 45, 184-195. https://doi.org/10.1053/jinf.2002.1056
Lackner, N., Thomé, C., Öfner, D., Joannidis, M., Mayerhöfer, T., Arora, R., Samardzic, E., Posch, W., Breitkopf, R. and Lass-Flörl, C. (2022) COVID-19 Associated Pulmonary Aspergillosis: Diagnostic Performance, Fungal Epidemiology and Antifungal Susceptibility. Journal of Fungi (Basel), 8, Article 93. https://doi.org/10.3390/jof8020093
Fernandez, N.B., Caceres, D.H., Beer, K.D., Irrazabal, C., Delgado, G., et al. (2021) Ventilator-Associated Pneumonia Involving Aspergillus flavus in a Patient with Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) from Argentina. Medical Mycology Case Reports, 31, 19-23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mmcr.2020.07.001
Vitale, R.G., Afeltra, J., Seyedmousavi, S., Giudicessi, S.L. and Romero, S.M. (2022) An Overview of COVID-19 Related to Fungal Infections: What Do We Know after the First Year of Pandemic? Brazilian Journal of Microbiology, 53, 759-775. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42770-022-00704-6
Severo, C.B., Guazzelli, L.S. and Severo, L.C. (2010) Chapter 7-Zygomycosis. The Brazilian Journal of Pulmonology, 36, 134-141. https://doi.org/10.1590/S1806-37132010000100018
Slavin, M. and Thursky, K. (2021) What Is Mucormycosis, the Fungal Infection Affecting COVID Patients in India? The Conversation. https://theconversation.com/what-is-mucormycosis-the-fungal-infection-affecting-covid-patients-in-india-160707
Farias, L.A.B.G., Damasceno, L.S., Bandeira, S.P., et al. (2021) COVID-19 Associated Mucormycosis (CAM): Should Brazil Be on Alert? Journal of the Brazilian Society of Tropical Medicine, 54, 1-3. https://doi.org/10.1590/0037-8682-0410-2021
Singh, K., Kumar, S., Shastri, S., Sudershan, A. and Mansotra, V. (2022) Black fungus Immunosuppressive Epidemic with Covid-19 Associated Mucormycosis (Zygomycosis): A Clinical and Diagnostic Perspective from India. Immunogenetics, 74, 197-206. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00251-021-01226-5
Boretti, A. (2022) Steroids Induced Black Fungus Infection in India during the May 2021 COVID-19 Outbreak. Indian Journal of Otolaryngology and Head & Neck Surgery, 74, 3216-3219. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12070-021-02988-w
Bonates, P., João, G.A.P., Cruz, K.S., Ferreira, M.S., Baía-da-Silva D.C., et al. (2021) Fatal Rhino-Orbito-Cerebral Mucormycosis Infection Associated with Diabetic Ketoacidosis Post-COVID-19. Journal of the Brazilian Society of Tropical Medicine, 54, 1-6. https://doi.org/10.1590/0037-8682-0358-2021
Munhoz, S.D., Lellis, R.F., Reis, A.P.C., Del Negro, G.M.B., Sousa, M.G.T. and Veasey, J.V. (2022) Rhino-Orbito-Cerebral Mucormycosis Caused by Rhizopus microsporus var. microsporus in a Diabetic Patient with COVID-19. Anais Brasileiros de Dermatologia, 97, 501-504. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.abd.2022.02.001
Silva, D.L., Lima, C.M., Magalhães, V.C.R., et al. (2021) Fungal and Bacterial Co-Infections Increase Mortality in Critically Ill COVID-19 Patients. Journal of Hospital Infection, 113, 145-154. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhin.2021.04.001
de Almeida Jr., J.N., Francisco, E.C., Hagen, F., Brandão, I.B., Pereira, F.M., Presta Dias, P.H., de Miranda Costa, M.M., de Souza Jordão, R.T., de Groot, T. and Colombo, A.L. (2021) Emergence of Candida auris in Brazil in a COVID-19 Intensive Care Unit. Journal of Fungi (Basel), 7, Article 220. https://doi.org/10.3390/jof7030220
Chowdhary, A., Tarai, B., Singh, A. and Sharma, A. (2020) Multidrug-Resistant Candida auris Infections in Critically Ill Coronavirus Disease Patients, India. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 26, 2694-2696. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid2611.203504
Bhagali, R., Prabhudesai, N.P. and Prabhudesai, M.N. (2021) Post COVID-19 Opportunistic Candida Retinitis: A Case Report. Indian Journal of Ophthalmology, 69, 987-989. https://doi.org/10.4103/ijo.IJO_3047_20
Daneshnia, F., de Almeida Júnior, J.N., Arastehfar, A., Lombardi, L., Shor, E., Moreno, L., Verena Mendes, A., Goreth Barberino, M., Thomaz Yamamoto, D., Butler, G., Perlin, D.S. and Colombo, A.L. (2022) Determinants of Fluconazole Resistance and Echinocandin Tolerance in C. parapsilosis Isolates Causing a Large Clonal Candidemia Outbreak among COVID-19 Patients in a Brazilian ICU. Emerging Microbes & Infections, 11, 2264-2274. https://doi.org/10.1080/22221751.2022.2117093
Rodriguez, J.Y., Le Pape, P., Lopez, O., Esquea, K., Labiosa, A.L. and Alvarez-Moreno, C. (2020) Candida auris: A Latent Threat to Critically Ill Patients with Coronavirus Disease 2019. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 73, e2836-e2837. https://doi.org/10.1093/cid/ciaa1595
Segrelles-Calvo, G., De S. Araújo, G.R., Llopis-Pastor, E. and Frasés, S. (2021) Trichosporon asahii as Cause of Nosocomial Pneumonia in Patient with COVID-19: A Triple Co-Infection. Archivos de Bronconeumología, 57, 46-48. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.arbres.2020.11.007
Benelli, J.L., Basso, R.P., Grafulha, T.W., Poester, V.R., Munhoz, L.S., Martins, K.B., et al. (2022) Fungal Bloodstream Co-Infection by Trichosporon asahii in a COVID-19 Critical Patient: Case Report and Literature Review. Mycopathologia, 187, 397-404. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11046-022-00637-6
de Almeida Jr., J.N., Moreno, L., Francisco, E.C., Noronha Marques, G., Mendes, A.V., Barberino, M.G. and Colombo, A.L. (2021) Trichosporon asahii Superinfections in Critically Ill COVID-19 Patients Overexposed to Antimicrobials and Corticosteroids. Mycoses, 64, 817-822.
Cronyn, V., Howard, J., Chiang, L., Le, L., Tims-Cook, Z. and Gertz, A.M. (2021) Trichosporon asahii Urinary Tract Infection in a Patient with Severe COVID-19. Case Reports Infectious Diseases, 2021, Article ID: 6841393. https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/6841393
Samaddar, A., Diwakar, J., Krishnan, P., Veena Kumari, H.B., Kavya, M., Konar, S., Sharma, D.A., Nandeesh, B.N., Goyal, A. and Nagarathna, S. (2022) COVID-19-Associated Brain Abscess Caused by Trichosporon dohaense: A Case Report and Review of Literature. Medical Mycology Case Reports, 35, 9-14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mmcr.2021.12.002
Lin, X. and Heiteman, J. (2006) The Biology of the Cryptococcus neoformans Species Complex. Annual Review of Microbiology, 60, 69-105. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.micro.60.080805.142102
Setianingrum, F., Rautemaa-Richardson, R. and Denning, D.W. (2019) Pulmonary Cryptococcosis: A Review of Pathobiology and Clinical Aspects. Medical Mycology, 57, 133-150. https://doi.org/10.1093/mmy/myy086
Regalla, D., VanNatta, M., Alam, M. and Malek, A.E. (2022) COVID-19-Associated Cryptococcus Infection (CACI): A Review of Literature and Clinical Pearls. Infection, 50, 1007-1012. https://doi.org/10.1007/s15010-022-01805-y
Chastain, D.B., Kung, V.M., Golpayegany, S., Jackson, B.T., Paredes, C.F., Barahona, L.V., Thompson, G.R. and Henao-Martínez, A.F. (2022) Cryptococcosis among Hospitalised Patients with COVID-19: A Multicentre Research Network Study. Mycoses, 65, 815-823. https://doi.org/10.1111/myc.13476
Chan, K.S., Lai, C.C., Yu, W.L. and Chao, C.M. (2022) COVID-19 Associated with Cryptococcosis: A New Challenge during the Pandemic. Journal of Fungi (Basel), 8, Article 1111. https://doi.org/10.3390/jof8101111
Roesch, T., Altneu, E. and Mueller, D. (2022) A Case of Pulmonary Cryptococcosis after Severe COVID-19 Pneumonia. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, 205, A5449. https://doi.org/10.1164/ajrccm-conference.2022.205.1_MeetingAbstracts.A5449
Alegre-González, D., Herrera, S., Bernal, J., Soriano, A. and Bodro, M. (2021) Disseminated Cryptococcus neoformans Infection Associated to COVID-19. Medical Mycology Case Reports, 34, 35-37. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mmcr.2021.10.001
Damani, J. (2021) Covid-19-Associated Pulmonary Fusarium Infection in a Non-Critically Ill Immunocompetant Patient. Chest, 160, A286. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chest.2021.07.292
Ghazanfari, M., Arastehfar, A., Davoodi, L., Charati, J.Y., Moazeni, M., Abastabar, M., Haghani, I., Mirzakhani, R., Mayahi, S., Fang, W., Liao, W., Nguyen, M.H., Perlin, D.S., Hoenigl, M., Pan, W. and Hedayati, M.T. (2021) Pervasive but Neglected: A Perspective on COVID-19-Associated Pulmonary Mold Infections among Mechanically Ventilated COVID-19 Patients. Frontiers in Medicine (Lausanne), 8, Article 649675. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmed.2021.649675
John, T.M., Jacob, C.N. and Kontoyiannis, D.P. (2021) When Uncontrolled Diabetes mellitus and Severe COVID-19 Converge: The Perfect Storm for Mucormycosis. Journal of Fungi (Basel), 7, Article 298. https://doi.org/10.3390/jof7040298
Poignon, C., Blaize, M., Vezinet, C., Lampros, A., Monsel, A. and Fekkar, A. (2020) Invasive Pulmonary Fusariosis in an Immunocompetent Critically Ill Patient with Severe COVID-19. Clinical Microbiology and Infection, 26, 1582-1584. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cmi.2020.06.026
Barberis, F., Benedetti, M.F., Abreu, M.S., Pola, S.J., Posse, G., Capece, P., et al. (2022) Invasive Fusariosis in a Critically Ill Patient with Severe COVID-19 Pneumonia: A case Report. Medical Mycology Case Reports, 35, 5-8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mmcr.2021.12.003
Toscanini, M.A., Barberis, F., Benedetti, M.F., Garrido, A.V., Posse, G.B., Capece, P., et al. (2022) Detection of Anti-Histoplasma capsulatum Antibodies and Seroconversion Patterns in Critically Ill Patients with COVID-19: An Underdiagnosed Fungal Entity Complicating COVID-19? Medical Mycology, 60, myac012. https://doi.org/10.1093/mmy/myac012
de Macedo, P.M., Freitas, D.F.S., Varon, A.G., Lamas, C.D.C., Ferreira, L.C.F., Freitas, A.D., Ferreira, M.T., Nunes, E.P., Siqueira, M.M., Veloso, V.G. and do Valle, A.C.F. (2020) COVID-19 and Acute Juvenile Paracoccidioidomycosis Coinfection. PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases, 14, e0008559. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0008559
Del Nogal, G.P., Mata, A., Ernest, P. and Salina, I. (2022) Disseminated Histoplasmosis in an Immunocompetent Patient with COVID-19 Pneumonia. BMJ Case Reports, 15, e247617. https://doi.org/10.1136/bcr-2021-247617
Heaney, A.K., Head, J.R., Broen, K., Click, K., Taylor, J., Balmes, J.R., et al. (2021) Coccidioidomycosis and COVID-19 Co-Infection, United States, 2020. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 27, 1266-1273. https://doi.org/10.3201/eid2705.204661
Nassif, E.F., Maloney, N., Conley, A.P. and Keung, E.Z. (2021) Disseminated Coccidioidomycosis Following COVID-19 Mimicking Metastatic Thoracic Relapse of Well-Differentiated Liposarcoma: A Case Report. Frontiers in Medicine, 8, Article 715939. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmed.2021.715939
Nielsen, M.C., Reynoso, D. and Ren, P. (2021) Closing the Brief Case: A Fatal Case of SARS-CoV-2 Coinfection with Coccidioides in Texas-Another Challenge We Face. Journal of Clinical Microbiology, 59, e0016421. https://doi.org/10.1128/JCM.00164-21
Huff, D., Ampel, N.M. and Blair, J.E. (2022) Coccidioidomycosis and COVID-19 Infection. An Analysis from a Single Medical Center within the Coccidioidal Endemic Area. Mycopathologia, 187, 199-204. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11046-022-00629-6
Macedo, P.M., Freitas, A.D., Bártholo, T.P., Bernardes-Engemann, A.R., Almeida, M.A., Almeida-Silva, F., Zancopé-Oliveira, R.M. and Almeida-Paes, R. (2021) Acute Pulmonary Histoplasmosis Following COVID-19: Novel Laboratorial Methods Aiding Diagnosis. Journal of Fungi (Basel), 7, Article 346. https://doi.org/10.3390/jof7050346
Garcia-Vidal, C., Sanjuan, G., Moreno-García, E., Puerta-Alcalde, P., Garcia-Pouton, N., Chumbita, M., et al. (2021) Incidence of Co-Infections and Superinfections in Hospitalized Patients with COVID-19: A Retrospective Cohort Study. Clinical Microbiology and Infection, 27, 83-88.
Lin, L., Lu, L., Cao, W. and Li, T. (2020) Hypothesis for Potential Pathogenesis of SARS-CoV-2 Infection-A Review of Immune Changes in Patients with Viral Pneumonia. Emerging Microbes & Infections, 9, 727-732. https://doi.org/10.1080/22221751.2020.1746199
Almasi, F. and Mohammadipanah, F. (2020) Hypothetical Targets and Plausible Drugs of Coronavirus Infection Caused by SARS-CoV-2. Transboundary and Emerging Diseases, 68, 318-332. https://doi.org/10.1111/tbed.13734
Wu, F., Zhou, Y.M., Wang, Z.F., Xie, M., Shi, Z., Tang, Z., Li, X.H., Li, X.C., Lei, C., Li, Y., Ni, Z., Hu, Y., Liu, X., et al. (2020) Características clínicas da infecção por COVID-19 na doença pulmonar obstrutiva crônica: Um estudo multicêntrico, retrospectivo e observacional. Journal of Thoracic Disease, 12, 1811-1823. https://doi.org/10.21037/jtd-20-1914
Yang, X., Yu, Y., Xu, J., Shu, H., Xia, J., Liu, H., Wu, Y., Zhang, L., Yu, Z., Fang, M., Yu, T., Wang, Y., Pan, S., et al. (2020) Curso clínico e resultados de pacientes gravemente enfermos com pneumonia por SARS-CoV-2 em Wuhan, China: Um estudo observacional retrospectivo de centro único. The Lancet Respiratory Medicine, 8, 475-481. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2213-2600(20)30079-5
Nasir, N., Farooqi, J., Mahmood, S.F. and Jabeen, K. (2020) Aspergilose pulmonar associada à COVID-19 (CAPA) em pacientes admitidos com pneumonia grave por COVID-19: Um estudo observacional do Paquistão. Micoses, 63, 766-770. https://doi.org/10.1111/myc.13135
Hughes, S., Troise, O., Donaldson, H., Mughal, N. and Moore, L.S. (2020) Coinfecção bacteriana e fúngica entre pacientes hospitalizados com COVID-19: Um estudo de coorte retrospectivo em um ambiente de atendimento secundário no Reino Unido. Clinical Microbiology and Infection, 26, 1395-1399. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cmi.2020.06.025