This study involved the selection of 11 cultivars out of 201 screened cultivars of fresh green and purple coloured tea leaves for use in the manufacture of black teas with optimized antioxidant activities. Individual cultivars containing a combination of high leaf concentrations of the catechin fractions; epicatechin gallate (ECG) and epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) were used in the processing of theaflavin-3,3’ digallate (TF3) rich black tea. The black tea enrichment with TF3 was carried out through optimization of the processing conditions of each cultivar by varying the aeration times between 0 min and 80 min at an interval of 20 min. The differently processed teas were then assayed for the TF3 contents. The data analysis was carried out using the GENSTAT at p ≤ 0.05. The optimal processing time for Ejulu, TRFK 832/8, TRFK 831/11, TRFK 824/1, SC 31/37, SC 12/28, K-Purple and TRFK 6/8 was found to be 60 min while that of TRFK 301/6, TRFK 301/3 and TRFK 655/1 was 40 min. The optimal TF3 levels were found to range from 0.19% to 0.60%.
KeywordsTheaflavinsCatechinsAntioxidants
Cabrera, C., Giménez, R. and López, M.C. (2003) Determination of Tea Components with Antioxidant Activity. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 51, 4427-4435. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/jf0300801
Kilel, E.C., Wanyoko, J.K., Faraj, A.K. and Wachira, F.N. (2013) Plain Black Tea Quality Parameters of Purple Leaf Coloured Tea Clones in Kenya. International Journal of Research in Chemistry and Environment, 3, 81-88.
Wamalwa, B.P. (2014) Sustainable Supply Chain Management as a Strategic Tool for Competitive Advantage in Tea Industry in Kenya. Journal of Management and Sustainability, 4, 157-164. http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/jms.v4n3p157
Kerio, L.C., Wachira, F.N., Wanyoko, J.K. and Rotich, M.K. (2012) Characterization of Anthocyanins in Kenyan Teas: Extraction and Identification. Food Chemistry, 131, 31-38. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2011.08.005
Khokhar, S. and Magnusdottir, S.G.M. (2002) Total Phenol, Catechin, and Caffeine Contents of Teas Commonly Consumed in the United Kingdom. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 50, 565-570. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/jf010153l
Way, T.-D., Lee, H.-H., Kao, M.-C. and Lin, J.-K. (2004) Black Tea Polyphenol Theaflavins Inhibit Aromatase Activity and Attenuate Tamoxifen Resistance in HER2/Neu-Transfected Human Breast Cancer Cells through Tyrosine Kinase Suppression. European Journal of Cancer, 40, 2165-2174. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ejca.2004.06.018
Lin, Y.L., Tsai, S.H., Lin-Shiau, S.Y., Ho, C.T. and Lin, J.-K. (1999) Theaflavin-3,3’-Digallate from Black Tea Blocks the Nitric Oxide Synthase by Down-Regulating the Activation of NF-κB in Macrophages. European Journal of Pharmacology, 367, 379-388. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0014-2999(98)00953-4
Harbowy, M.E. and Balentine, D.A.D.A. (1997) Tea Chemistry. Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences, 16, 415-480. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07352689709701956
Tüfekci, M. and Güner, S. (1997) The Determination of Optimum Aeration Time in Turkish Black Tea Manufacture. Food Chemistry, 60, 53-56. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0308-8146(96)00302-0
Yoshino, K., Yamazaki, K. and Sano, M. (2010) Preventive Effects of Black Tea Theaflavins against Mouse Type IV Allergy. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 90, 1983-1987. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jsfa.4035
Wu, Y., Li, W., Xu, Y., Jin, E. and Tu, Y. (2011) Evaluation of the Antioxidant Effects of Four Main Theaflavin Derivatives through Chemiluminescence and DNA Damage Analyses. Journal of Zheijang University Science B, 12, 744-751. http://dx.doi.org/10.1631/jzus.B1100041
Owuor, P. (1995) Clonal Variation in the Individual Theaflavin Levels and Their Impact on Astringency and Sensory Evaluations. Food Chemistry, 54, 273-277. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0308-8146(95)00046-L
Owuor, P.O. and Obanda, M. (2001) Comparative Responses in Plain Black Tea Quality Parameters of Different Tea Clones to Aeration Temperature and Duration. Food Chemistry, 72, 319-327. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0308-8146(00)00232-6
Yang, Z., Tu, Y., Xia, H., Jie, G., Chen, X. and He, P. (2007) Suppression of Free-Radicals and Protection against H2O2-Induced Oxidative Damage in HPF-1 Cell by Oxidized Phenolic Compounds Present in Black Tea. Food Chemistry, 105, 1349-1356. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2007.05.006
Anandhan, A., Tamilselvam, K., Radhiga, T., Rao, S., Essa, M.M. and Manivasagam, T. (2012) Theaflavin, a Black Tea Polyphenol, Protects Nigral Dopaminergic Neurons against Chronic MPTP/Probenecid Induced Parkinson’s Disease. Brain Research, 1433, 104-113. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.brainres.2011.11.021
Aneja, R., Odoms, K., Denenberg, A.G. and Wong, H.R. (2004) Theaflavin, a Black Tea Extract, Is a Novel Anti-Inflammatory Compound. Critical Care Medicine, 32, 2097-2103. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/01.CCM.0000142661.73633.15
Antioxidants, E., Leung, L.K., Su, Y., Chen, R., Zhang, Z., Huang, Y. and Chen, Z. (2001) Theaflavins in Black Tea and Catechins in Green Tea Are Equally. Society, 1, 2248-2251.
Babich, H., Gottesman, R.T., Liebling, E.J. and Schuck, A.G. (2008) Theaflavin-3-Gallate and Theaflavin-3’-Gallate, Polyphenols in Black Tea with Prooxidant Properties. Basic & Clinical Pharmacology & Toxicology, 103, 66-74. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1742-7843.2008.00232.x
Betts, J.W., Wareham, D.W., Haswell, S.J. and Kelly, S.M. (2013) Antifungal Synergy of Theaflavin and Epicatechin Combinations against Candida albicans. Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology, 23, 1322-1326. http://dx.doi.org/10.4014/jmb.1303.03010
Chow, H.H.S. and Hakim, I.A. (2011) Pharmacokinetic and Chemoprevention Studies on Tea in Humans. Pharmacological Research, 64, 105-112. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.phrs.2011.05.007
Feng, Q., Torii, Y., Uchida, K., Nakamura, Y., Hara, Y. and Osawa, T. (2002) Black Tea Polyphenols, Theaflavins, Prevent Cellular DNA Damage by Inhibiting Oxidative Stress and Suppressing Cytochrome P450 1A1 in Cell Cultures. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 50, 213-220. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/jf010875c
Karori, S.M., Wachira, F.N., Wanyoko, J.K. and Ngure, R.M. (2007) Antioxidant Capacity of Different Types of Tea Products. African Journal of Biotechnology, 6, 2287-2296.
Krishnan, R. and Maru, G.B. (2004) Inhibitory Effect(s) of Polymeric Black Tea Polyphenol Fractions on the Formation of [3H]-B(a)P-Derived DNA Adducts. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 52, 4261-4269. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/jf049979o
Nanjo, F., Goto, K., Seto, R., Suzuki, M., Sakai, M. and Hara, Y. (1996) Scavenging Effects of Tea Catechins and Their Derivatives on 1,1-Diphenyl-2-Picrylhydrazyl Radical. Free Radical Biology and Medicine, 21, 895-902. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0891-5849(96)00237-7
Bhattacharyya, N., Seth, S., Tudu, B., Tamuly, P., Jana, A., Ghosh, D., Bandyopadhyay, R., Bhuyan, M. and Sabhapandit, S. (2007) Detection of Optimum Aeration Time for Black Tea Manufacturing Using Electronic Nose. Sensors and Actuators B: Chemical, 122, 627-634. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.snb.2006.07.013
Obanda, M., Owuor, P.O. and Mang’oka, R. (2001) Changes in the Chemical and Sensory Quality Parameters of Black Tea Due to Variations of Aeration Time and Temperature. Food Chemistry, 75, 395-404. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0308-8146(01)00223-0
Owuor, P.O. and Obanda, M. (2007) The Use of Green Tea (Camellia sinensis) Leaf Flavan-3-ol Composition in Predicting Plain Black Tea Quality Potential. Food Chemistry, 100, 873-884. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2005.10.030
Owuor, P.O., Obanda, M., Nyirenda, H.E. and Mandala, W.L. (2008) Influence of Region of Production on Clonal Black Tea Chemical Characteristics. Food Chemistry, 108, 263-271. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2007.09.017
Bailey, R.G., Nursten, H.E. and McDowell, I. (1991) Comparative Study of the Reversed-Phase High-Performance Liquid Chromatography of Black Tea Liquors with Special Reference to the Thearubigins. Journal of Chromatography A, 542, 115-128. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0021-9673(01)88752-5
Leonida, C., Kamunya, S.M., Alakonya, A., Solomon, M.W., Uwimanna, M.A. and Phillip, O.O. (2013) Characterization of 20 Clones of Tea (Camellia sinensis (L.) O. Kuntze) Using ISSR and SSR Markers. Agricultural Science Research Journal, 3, 292-302.
Wachira, F.N., Kamunya, S., Karori, S., Chalo, R. and Maritim, T. (2013) Chapter 1—The Tea Plants: Botanical Aspects. In: Preedy, V.R., Ed., Tea in Health and Disease Prevention, Academic Press, Elsevier Science and Technology, Missouri, 3-17.
Koech, K.R., Wachira, F.N., Ngure, R.M., Wanyoko, J.K., Bii, C.C., Karori, S.M. and Kerio, L.C. (2013) Antimicrobial, Synergistic and Antioxidant Activities of Tea Polyphenols. In: Méndez-Vilas, A., Ed., Microbial Pathogens and Strategies for Combating Them: Science, Technology and Education, Formatex Research Center, Badajoz, 971-981.
Ngure, F.M., Wanyoko, J.K., Mahungu, S.M. and Shitandi, A.A. (2009) Catechins Depletion Patterns in Relation to Theaflavin and Thearubigins Formation. Food Chemistry, 115, 8-14. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2008.10.006
Baruah, A.M. and Mahanta, P.K. (2003) Aeration Characteristics of Some Assamica Clones and Process Optimization of Black Tea Manufacturing. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 51, 6578-6588. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/jf030019w
Bhattacharya, N., Tudu, B., Jana, A., Ghosh, D., Bandhopadhyaya, R. and Bhuyan, M. (2008) Preemptive Identification of Optimum Aeration Time for Black Tea Using Electronic Nose. Sensors & Actuators, B: Chemical, 131, 110-116. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.snb.2007.12.032
Muthumani, T. and Kumar, R.S.S. (2006) Influence of Aeration Time on the Development of Compounds Responsible for Quality in Black Tea. Food Chemistry, 101, 98-102. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2006.01.008
Tu, Y.-Y., Xu, X.-Q., Xia, H.-L. and Watanabe, N. (2005) Optimization of Theaflavin Biosynthesis from Tea Polyphenols Using an Immobilized Enzyme System and Response Surface Methodology. Biotechnology Letters, 27, 269- 274. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10529-004-8292-4
Myers, R.H., Montgomery, D.C. and Anderson-Cook, C. (2009) Response Surface Methodology: Process and Product Optimization Using Designed Experiments (Wiley Series in Probability and Statistics). Wiley, New York, 704.
Subramanian, N., Venkatesh, P., Ganguli, S. and Sinkar, V.P. (1999) Role of Polyphenol Oxidase and Peroxidase in the Generation of Black Tea Theaflavins. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 47, 2571-2578. http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/jf981042y
Kim, Y., Goodner, K.L., Park, J.D., Choi, J. and Talcott, S.T. (2011) Changes in Antioxidant Phytochemicals and Volatile Composition of Camellia sinensis by Oxidation during Tea Aeration. Food Chemistry, 129, 1331-1342. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2011.05.012
Nadi, M., Mosaffa, N., Karimi, F., Kamalinejad, M., Farrokhi, B., Anissian, A., Pakzad, P., Nadi, M., Mosaffa, N., Karimi, F., Kamalinejad, M., Farrokhi, B., Anissian, A. and Pakzad, P. (2010) Iranian Black Tea and Cowslip Extracts Induce Tumor Necrosis Factor-Alpha Secretion from Mouse Macrophage Cell Culture. Iranian Journal of Pharmaceutical Research, 9, 83-87.
Ghorbanzadeh, B., Shahriari, A. and Tabatabaie, R. (2012) Effect of Optional Consumption of Iranian Black and Green Tea on Lipid Profile of Serum and Liver in High-Fat Diet Rats. Iranian Journal of Diabetes and Obesity, 4, 79-86.