Do Plants Have a Choice of Traits to Be Modulated? Evidence from an Invasive Plant <i>Mikania micrantha</i> Kunth in Different Urban Environments — Oak Academic Publishing
Research ArticleOpen AccessGoogle Scholar indexed
Do Plants Have a Choice of Traits to Be Modulated? Evidence from an Invasive Plant <i>Mikania micrantha</i> Kunth in Different Urban Environments
Agricultural and Ecological Research Unit, Indian Statistical Institute, Kolkata, India
,
Soils Department, Tocklai Tea Research Institute, Assam, India
,
Agricultural and Ecological Research Unit, Indian Statistical Institute, Kolkata, India
1 Agricultural and Ecological Research Unit, Indian Statistical Institute, Kolkata, India
2 Soils Department, Tocklai Tea Research Institute, Assam, India
3 Agricultural and Ecological Research Unit, Indian Statistical Institute, Kolkata, India
The successful establishment of an invasive plant in a novel environment has been attributed to the phenotypic plasticity of plant traits, with most studies focussing on vegetative trait plasticity in either experimental and/or natural habitat conditions. This study explores the role of phenotypic plasticity, in both vegetative and reproductive traits, of an invasive plant Mikania micrantha growing as a ground cover in diverse urban areas in the city of Kolkata, India. Quadrat based plant and soil sampling was conducted in three habitat types, namely roadsides, natural areas and abandoned plots, from four regions within the city. The above ground biomass and fitness related vegetative and seed traits were estimated from the plant samples whereas soil macro-and micro-nutrients as well as soil health (in terms of organic carbon and microbial biomass carbon) were estimated from the soil samples. Habitat-specific selection of traits in M. micrantha was observed in this study. In roadside population which has more chances of long distance dispersal, the excessive production of reproductive biomass as a compensatory response to the low germination ability of the seeds was evident. In natural areas which are more prone to anthropogenic disturbance and where the plant has greater chances of local spread, modulation of both vegetative (higher SLA) and reproductive traits (lighter seeds with faster germination ability) helped the plant to maintain its population. In abandoned plots where there was more number of associated species, the longer span of germination and increased population height ensured the survivability of M. micrantha in the community. Thus, a continuous monitoring program to check for M. micrantha growth should be prioritized in urban areas due to its immense trait plasticity in different habitat conditions where uncontrolled growth can lead to its establishment and spread, thereby making its control more diffi cult.
Holm, L.G., Plucknett, D.L., Pancho, J.V. and Herberger, J.P. (1977) The World’s Worst Weeds. University Press, Jadavpur.
Day, M. (2012) Mikania Micrantha Kunth–Mile-a-Minute. In: Julien, M., McFadyen, R. and Cullen, J., Eds., Biological Control of Weeds in Australia, CSIRO, Canberra, 368-372.
Sankaran, K. and Sreenivasan, M. (1999) Status of Mikania Infestation in the Western Ghats. In: Sankaran, K.V., Murphy, S.T., Evans, H.C., Anitha, V. and Sreenivasan, M.A., Eds., Alien Weeds in Moist Tropical Zones: Banes and Benefits, Kerala Forest Research Institute, Peechi, 67-76.
Puzari, K., Bhuyan, R., Dutta, P. and Nath, H. (2010) Distribution of Mikania and Its Economic Impact on Tea Ecosystem of Assam. Indian Journal of Forestry, 33, 71-76.
Banerjee, A.K., Reddy, C.S. and Dewanji, A. (2016) Impact Assessment on Floral Composition and Spread Potential of Mikania Micrantha Hbk in an Urban Scenario. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, India Section B: Biological Sciences, 1-12.
McKinney, M.L. (2006) Urbanization as a Major Cause of Biotic Homogenization. Biological Conservation, 127, 247-260. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2005.09.005
Von der Lippe, M. and Kowarik, I. (2008) Do Cities Export Biodiversity? Traffic as Dispersal Vector across Urban-Rural Gradients. Diversity and Distributions, 14, 18-25. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1472-4642.2007.00401.x
Wittig, R. (2004) The Origin and Development of the Urban Flora of Central Europe. Urban Ecosystems, 7, 323-329. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11252-005-6833-9
Lockwood, J.L., Cassey, P. and Blackburn, T. (2005) The Role of Propagule Pressure in Explaining Species Invasions. Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 20, 223-228. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2005.02.004
Weidenhamer, J.D. and Callaway, R.M. (2010) Direct and Indirect Effects of Invasive Plants on Soil Chemistry and Ecosystem Function. Journal of Chemical Ecology, 36, 59-69. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10886-009-9735-0
Pigliucci, M. (2001) Phenotypic Plasticity: Beyond Nature and Nurture. The Johns Hopkins University Press London.
Davidson, A.M., Jennions, M. and Nicotra, A.B. (2011) Do Invasive Species Show Higher Phenotypic Plasticity Than Native Species and, If So, Is It Adaptive? A Meta-Analysis. Ecology Letters, 14, 419-431. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1461-0248.2011.01596.x
Valladares, F., Gianoli, E. and Gómez, J.M. (2007) Ecological Limits to Plant Phenotypic Plasticity. New Phytologist, 176, 749-763. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8137.2007.02275.x
Sultan, S.E. (2001) Phenotypic Plasticity for Fitness Components in Polygonum Species of Contrasting Ecological Breadth. Ecology, 82, 328-343. https://doi.org/10.1890/0012-9658(2001)082[0328:PPFFCI]2.0.CO;2
Roughgarden, J. (1972) Evolution of Niche Width. The American Naturalist, 106, 683-718. https://doi.org/10.1086/282807
Pysek, P. and Richardson, D.M. (2008) Traits Associated with Invasiveness in Alien Plants: Where Do We Stand? In: Nentwig, W., Ed., Biological Invasions, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 97-125.
Van Kleunen, M., Weber, E. and Fischer, M. (2010) A Meta-Analysis of Trait Differences between Invasive and Non-Invasive Plant Species. Ecology Letters, 13, 235-245. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1461-0248.2009.01418.x
Hejda, M., Pysek, P. and Jarosík, V. (2009) Impact of Invasive Plants on the Species Richness, Diversity and Composition of Invaded Communities. Journal of Ecology, 97, 393-403. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2745.2009.01480.x
Garnier, E., Laurent, G., Bellmann, A., Debain, S., Berthelier, P., Ducout, B., Roumet, C. and Navas, M.L. (2001) Consistency of Species Ranking Based on Functional Leaf Traits. New Phytologist, 152, 69-83. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.0028-646x.2001.00239.x
Leishman, M.R., Haslehurst, T., Ares, A. and Baruch, Z. (2007) Leaf Trait Relationships of Native and Invasive Plants: Community- and Global-Scale Comparisons. New Phytologist, 176, 635-643. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8137.2007.02189.x
Wang, G., Liu, J. and Meng, T. (2015) Leaf Trait Variation Captures Climate Differences but Differs with Species Irrespective of Functional Group. Journal of Plant Ecology, 8, 61-69. https://doi.org/10.1093/jpe/rtu009
Westoby, M., Falster, D.S., Moles, A.T., Vesk, P.A. and Wright, I.J. (2002) Plant Ecological Strategies: Some Leading Dimensions of Variation between Species. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, 33, 125-159. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.33.010802.150452
Ackerly, D.D. and Cornwell, W. (2007) A Trait-Based Approach to Community Assembly: Partitioning of Species Trait Values into within-and among-Community Components. Ecology Letters, 10, 135-145. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1461-0248.2006.01006.x
Duru, M., Ansquer, P., Jouany, C., Theau, J. and Cruz, P. (2010) Comparison of Methods for Assessing the Impact of Different Disturbances and Nutrient Conditions Upon Functional Characteristics of Grassland Communities. Annals of Botany, 106, 823-831. https://doi.org/10.1093/aob/mcq178
Amatangelo, K.L., Johnson, S.E., Rogers, D.A. and Waller, D.M. (2014) Trait-Environment Relationships Remain Strong Despite 50 Years of Trait Compositional Change in Temperate Forests. Ecology, 95, 1780-1791. https://doi.org/10.1890/13-0757.1
Albert, C.H., Thuiller, W., Yoccoz, N.G., Douzet, R., Aubert, S. and Lavorel, S. (2010) A Multi-Trait Approach Reveals the Structure and the Relative Importance of Intra-Vs. Interspecific Variability in Plant Traits. Functional Ecology, 24, 1192-1201. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2435.2010.01727.x
Hulshof, C.M., Martínez-Yrízar, A., Burquez, A., Boyle, B. and Enquist, B.J. (2013) Plant Functional Trait Variation in Tropical Dry Forests: A Review and Synthesis. In: Quesada, M., Ed., Tropical Dry Forests in the Americas: Ecology, Conservation, and Management, CRC Press, Boca Raton, 129-140. https://doi.org/10.1201/b15417-9
Siefert, A., Violle, C., Chalmandrier, L., Albert, C.H., Taudiere, A., Fajardo, A., Aarssen, L.W., Baraloto, C., Carlucci, M.B. and Cianciaruso, M.V. (2015) A Global Meta-Analysis of the Relative Extent of Intraspecific Trait Variation in Plant Communities. Ecology Letters, 18, 1406-1419. https://doi.org/10.1111/ele.12508
Luo, J. and Cardina, J. (2012) Germination Patterns and Implications for Invasiveness in Three Taraxacum (Asteraceae) Species. Weed Research, 52, 112-121. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3180.2011.00898.x
Gioria, M. and Pysek, P. (2016) Early Bird Catches the Worm: Germination as a Critical Step in Plant Invasion. Biological Invasions, 1-26. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10530-016-1349-1
Forbis, T.A. (2010) Germination Phenology of Some Great Basin Native Annual Forb Species. Plant Species Biology, 25, 221-230. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1442-1984.2010.00289.x
Donohue, K., Rubio de Casas, R., Burghardt, L., Kovach, K. and Willis, C.G. (2010) Germination, Postgermination Adaptation, and Species Ecological Ranges. Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics, 41, 293-319. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-102209-144715
Goyal, N., Pardha-Saradhi, P. and Sharma, G.P. (2014) Can Adaptive Modulation of Traits to Urban Environments Facilitate Ricinus communis L. Invasiveness? Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 186, 7941-7948. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-014-3978-0
Farahat, E., Galal, T., El-Midany, M. and Hassan, L. (2015) Effect of Urban Habitat Heterogeneity on Functional Traits Plasticity of the Invasive Species Calotropis Procera (Aiton) W.T. Aiton. Rendiconti Lincei, 26, 193-201. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12210-015-0408-3
Moravcová, L., Pysek, P., Jarosík, V. and Pergl, J. (2015) Getting the Right Traits: Reproductive and Dispersal Characteristics Predict the Invasiveness of Herbaceous Plant Species. PLoS ONE, 10, e0123634. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0123634
Deng, X., Ye, W.-H., Feng, H.-L., Yang, Q.-H., Hong-Ling, C., Xu, K.-Y. and Zhang, Y. (2004) Gas Exchange Characteristics of the Invasive Species Mikania Micrantha and Its Indigenous Congener M. Cordata (Asteraceae) in South China. Botanical Bulletin of Academia Sinica, 45, 213-220.
Song, L.-Y., Ni, G.-Y., Chen, B.-M. and Peng, S.-L. (2007) Energetic Cost of Leaf Construction in the Invasive Weed Mikania Micrantha Hbk and Its Co-Occurring Species: Implications for Invasiveness. Botanical Studies, 48, 331-338.
Li, X., Shen, Y., Huang, Q., Fan, Z. and Huang, D. (2013) Regeneration Capacity of Small Clonal Fragments of the Invasive Mikania Micrantha Hbk: Effects of Burial Depth and Stolon Internode Length. PLoS ONE, 8, e84657. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0084657
Tripathi, R., Khan, M. and Yadav, A. (2012) Biology of Mikania Micrantha Hbk: A Review. In: Bhatt, J., Singh, J., Singh, S., Tripathi, R. and Kohli, R., Eds., Invasive Alien Plants: An Ecological Appraisal for the Indian Subcontinent, CAB International, Wallingford, UK, 99-107.
Hong, L., Shen, H., Ye, W., Cao, H. and Wang, Z. (2007) Self-Incompatibility in Mikania Micrantha in South China. Weed Research, 47, 280-283. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3180.2007.00575.x
Baker, H.G. (1955) Self-Compatibility and Establishment after Long-Distance Dispersal. Evolution, 9, 347-349. https://doi.org/10.2307/2405656
Mal, T.K. and Lovett-Doust, J. (2005) Phenotypic Plasticity in Vegetative and Reproductive Traits in an Invasive Weed, Lythrum Salicaria (Lythraceae), in Response to Soil Moisture. American Journal of Botany, 92, 819-825. https://doi.org/10.3732/ajb.92.5.819
Pauchard, A., Aguayo, M., Pena, E. and Urrutia, R. (2006) Multiple Effects of Urbanization on the Biodiversity of Developing Countries: The Case of a Fast-Growing Metropolitan Area (Concepción, Chile). Biological Conservation, 127, 272-281. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2005.05.015
Dorken, M.E. and Barrett, S.C. (2004) Phenotypic Plasticity of Vegetative and Reproductive Traits in Monoecious and Dioecious Populations of Sagittaria Latifolia (Alismataceae): A Clonal Aquatic Plant. Journal of Ecology, 92, 32-44. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2745.2004.00857.x
Fridley, J.D., Grime, J.P. and Bilton, M. (2007) Genetic Identity of Interspecific Neighbours Mediates Plant Responses to Competition and Environmental Variation in a Species-Rich Grassland. Journal of Ecology, 95, 908-915. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2745.2007.01256.x
Bates, L., Waldren, R. and Teare, I. (1973) Rapid Determination of Free Proline for Water-Stress Studies. Plant and Soil, 39, 205-207. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00018060
Zheng, X., Li, X. and Xu, Y. (2007) The Effect of Hydropriming on Germination Barriers of Triploid Watermelon Seeds. In: Adkins, S.W., Ashmore, S. and Navie, S.C., Eds., Seeds: Biology, Development and Ecology, CABI, Egham, 269-278. https://doi.org/10.1079/9781845931971.0269
Lehsten, V. (2005) Functional Analysis and Modelling of Vegetation: Plant Functional Types in a Mesocosmos Experiment and a Mechanistic Model. University of Oldenburg, Oldenburg.
Nelson, D. and Sommers, L. (1973) Determination of Total Nitrogen in Plant Material. Agronomy Journal, 65, 109-112. https://doi.org/10.2134/agronj1973.00021962006500010033x
John, M.K. (1970) Colorimetric Determination of Phosphorus in Soil and Plant Materials with Ascorbic Acid. Soil Science, 109, 214-220. https://doi.org/10.1097/00010694-197004000-00002
Davis, A., Dinan, F., Lobbett, E., Chazin, J. and Tufts, L. (1964) Phosphorus Determination by Flame Photometry. Analytical Chemistry, 36, 1066-1068. https://doi.org/10.1021/ac60212a033
Cleves, M. (2008) An Introduction to Survival Analysis Using Stata. STATA Press, College Station.
Onofri, A., Gresta, F. and Tei, F. (2010) A New Method for the Analysis of Germination and Emergence Data of Weed Species. Weed Research, 50, 187-198. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3180.2010.00776.x
Subbiah, B. and Asija, G. (1956) A Rapid Procedure for the Estimation of Available Nitrogen in Soils. Current Science, 25, 259-260.
Olsen, S.R. and Sommers, L.E. (1982) Phosphorus. In: Page, A.L., Ed., Methods of Soil Analysis Part 2 Chemical and Microbiological Properties, American Society of Agronomy, Soil Science Society of America, Madison, 403-430.
Chapman, H.D. and Pratt, P.F. (1962) Methods of Analysis for Soils, Plants and Waters. Soil Science, 93, 68. https://doi.org/10.1097/00010694-196201000-00015
Nelson, D.W. and Sommers, L.E. (1982) Total Carbon, Organic Carbon, and Organic Matter. In: Page, A.L., Ed., Methods of Soil Analysis Part 2 Chemical and Microbiological Properties, American Society of Agronomy, Soil Science Society of America, Madison, 539-579.
Lindsay, W.L. and Norvell, W.A. (1978) Development of a Dtpa Soil Test for Zinc, Iron, Manganese, and Copper. Soil Science Society of America Journal, 42, 421-428. https://doi.org/10.2136/sssaj1978.03615995004200030009x
Adamiec, E., Jarosz-Krzemińska, E. and Wieszala, R. (2016) Heavy Metals from Non-Exhaust Vehicle Emissions in Urban and Motorway Road Dusts. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 188, 369. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-016-5377-1
Vance, E., Brookes, P. and Jenkinson, D. (1987) An Extraction Method for Measuring Soil Microbial Biomass C. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, 19, 703-707. https://doi.org/10.1016/0038-0717(87)90052-6
Brookes, P.C., Landman, A., Pruden, G. and Jenkinson, D. (1985) Chloroform Fumigation and the Release of Soil Nitrogen: A Rapid Direct Extraction Method to Measure Microbial Biomass Nitrogen in Soil. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, 17, 837-842. https://doi.org/10.1016/0038-0717(85)90144-0
Li, W.-H., Zhang, C.-B., Gao, G.-J., Zan, Q.-J. and Yang, Z.-Y. (2007) Relationship between Mikania Micrantha Invasion and Soil Microbial Biomass, Respiration and Functional Diversity. Plant and Soil, 296, 197-207. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11104-007-9310-9
McNair, J.N., Sunkara, A. and Frobish, D. (2012) How to Analyse Seed Germination Data Using Statistical Time-to-Event Analysis: Non-Parametric and Semi-Parametric Methods. Seed Science Research, 22, 77-95. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0960258511000547
Gunjaca, J. and Sarcevic, H. (2000) Survival Analysis of the Wheat Germination Data. 22nd International Conference on Information Technology Interfaces, Pula, 13-16 June 2000, 307-310.
Liu, C.-W., Sung, Y., Chen, B.-C. and Lai, H.-Y. (2014) Effects of Nitrogen Fertilizers on the Growth and Nitrate Content of Lettuce (Lactuca Sativa L.). International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 11, 4427-4440. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph110404427
Kabata-Pendias, A. (2011) Trace Elements in Soils and Plants. CRC Press, Boca Raton, 201-213.
Tokarz, E. and Urban, D. (2015) Soil Redox Potential and Its Impact on Microorganisms and Plants of Wetlands. Journal of Ecological Engineering, 16, 20-30. https://doi.org/10.12911/22998993/2801
Von der Lippe, M., Bullock, J.M., Kowarik, I., Knopp, T. and Wichmann, M. (2013) Human-Mediated Dispersal of Seeds by the Airflow of Vehicles. PLoS ONE, 8, e52733. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0052733
Von der Lippe, M. and Kowarik, I. (2007) Long-Distance Dispersal of Plants by Vehicles as a Driver of Plant Invasions. Conservation Biology, 21, 986-996. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1523-1739.2007.00722.x
Palacio, S., Milla, R., Albuixech, J., Pérez-Rontomé, C., Camarero, J.J., Maestro, M. and Montserrat-Martí, G. (2008) Seasonal Variability of Dry Matter Content and Its Relationship with Shoot Growth and Nonstructural Carbohydrates. New Phytologist, 180, 133-142. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8137.2008.02569.x
Rai, P.K. (2016) Biodiversity of Roadside Plants and Their Response to Air Pollution in an Indo-Burma Hotspot Region: Implications for Urban Ecosystem Restoration. Journal of Asia-Pacific Biodiversity, 9, 47-55. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.japb.2015.10.011
Chaturvedi, R., Prasad, S., Rana, S., Obaidullah, S., Pandey, V. and Singh, H. (2013) Effect of Dust Load on the Leaf Attributes of the Tree Species Growing along the Roadside. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 185, 383-391. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-012-2560-x
Zhang, L., Ye, W., Cao, H. and Feng, H. (2004) Mikania Micrantha Hbk in China— An Overview. Weed Research, 44, 42-49. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3180.2003.00371.x
Li, W.-H., Zhang, C.-B., Jiang, H.-B., Xin, G.-R. and Yang, Z.-Y. (2006) Changes in Soil Microbial Community Associated with Invasion of the Exotic Weed, Mikania Micrantha Hbk. Plant and Soil, 281, 309-324. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11104-005-9641-3
Swamy, P. and Ramakrishnan, P. (1987) Contribution of Mikania Micrantha during Secondary Succession Following Slash-and-Burn Agriculture (Jhum) in North-East India Ii. Nutrient Cycling. Forest Ecology and Management, 22, 239-249. https://doi.org/10.1016/0378-1127(87)90108-3
McAlpine, K.G., Lamoureaux, S.L. and Westbrooke, I. (2015) Ecological Impacts of Ground Cover Weeds in New Zealand Lowland Forests. New Zealand Journal of Ecology, 39, 50.
Hayat, S., Hayat, Q., Alyemeni, M.N., Wani, A.S., Pichtel, J. and Ahmad, A. (2012) Role of Proline under Changing Environments: A Review. Plant Signaling & Behavior, 7, 1456-1466. https://doi.org/10.4161/psb.21949
Grotkopp, E. and Rejmánek, M. (2007) High Seedling Relative Growth Rate and Specific Leaf Area Are Traits of Invasive Species: Phylogenetically Independent Contrasts of Woody Angiosperms. American Journal of Botany, 94, 526-532. https://doi.org/10.3732/ajb.94.4.526
Reich, P.B., Walters, M.B. and Ellsworth, D.S. (1997) From Tropics to Tundra: Global Convergence in Plant Functioning. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 94, 13730-13734. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.94.25.13730
Wilson, P.J., Thompson, K. and Hodgson, J.G. (1999) Specific Leaf Area and Leaf Dry Matter Content as Alternative Predictors of Plant Strategies. New Phytologist, 143, 155-162. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1469-8137.1999.00427.x
Dyer, A., Fenech, A. and Rice, K. (2000) Accelerated Seedling Emergence in Interspecific Competitive Neighbourhoods. Ecology Letters, 3, 523-529. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1461-0248.2000.00187.x
Verdú, M. and Traveset, A. (2005) Early Emergence Enhances Plant Fitness: A Phylogenetically Controlled Meta-Analysis. Ecology, 86, 1385-1394. https://doi.org/10.1890/04-1647
Gioria, M., Pysek, P. and Osborne, B.A. (2016) Timing Is Everything: Does Early and Late Germination Favor Invasions by Herbaceous Alien Plants? Journal of Plant Ecology, rtw105. https://doi.org/10.1093/jpe/rtw105
Klimkowska, A., Van Diggelen, R., Den Held, S., Brienen, R., Verbeek, S. and Vegelin, K. (2009) Seed Production in Fens and Fen Meadows along a Disturbance Gradient. Applied Vegetation Science, 12, 304-315. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1654-109X.2009.01024.x
Baker, H.G. (1974) The Evolution of Weeds. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, 5, 1-24. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.es.05.110174.000245
Feng, Y.-L., Lei, Y.-B., Wang, R.-F., Callaway, R.M., Valiente-Banuet, A., Li, Y.-P. and Zheng, Y.-L. (2009) Evolutionary Tradeoffs for Nitrogen Allocation to Photosynthesis versus Cell Walls in an Invasive Plant. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 106, 1853-1856. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0808434106
Roy, A. and Singh, K. (2003) Dynamics of Microbial Biomass and Nitrogen Supply During Primary Succession on Blastfurnace Slag Dumps in Dry Tropics. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, 35, 365-372. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0038-0717(02)00286-9
Sparling, G.P. (1992) Ratio of Microbial Biomass Carbon to Soil Organic Carbon as a Sensitive Indicator of Changes in Soil Organic Matter. Soil Research, 30, 195-207. https://doi.org/10.1071/SR9920195
Banerjee, A.K. and Dewanji, A. (2012) Mikania Micrantha Hbk-a Potential and Economical Threat to Global Biodiversity with Special Emphasis on the Indian Context. Proceedings of the 18th Australasian Weeds Conference Frankston, Melbourne, 8-11 October 2012, 17-20.