Issues that dominate Sub-Saharan African animal agriculture are low production levels and environmental sustainability, including climate, biodiversity, and land use. There are inadequate evidence-based decisions on important issues related to sustainable animal agriculture such as greenhouse gas emissions from livestock, the water footprint, and models to estimate greenhouse gas emissions. It is therefore emphasized in this paper that decisions around strategies related to future sustainability must be evidence-based, implying that research becomes a fundamental part of ensuring the sustainability of animal agriculture, which makes collaboration between regions vitally important. Fourteen interventions that are needed for sub-Saharan Africa are mentioned and briefly discussed. These include (1) the use of indigenous/adapted genotypes, (2) the development of early warning systems and (3) alternative production systems, which can be linked to adaptation. The interventions linked to mitigation are: (4) improved cow-calf efficiency/alternative breeding objectives, (5) carbon sequestration, (6) carbon footprint within different resource environments, (7) feeding and grazing, (8) rumen manipulation (9) land use and greenhouse gas emissions and (10) management. Lastly the interventions linked to resilience are (11) resilience to variation in climate, (12) breed/genotype plasticity and (13) epigenetics. There is no simple strategy to address climate change for Sub-Saharan African animal agriculture. Furthermore, solutions for Europe and North America will be different from those for Sub-Saharan Africa. No single country, industry, or organisation within Sub-Saharan Africa can carry out such research on its own. This emphasizes the importance of focusing on Global South scientific collaborations and the establishment of virtual centres of excellence will be beneficial.
FAO (2015) Sustainable Development Goals: 17 Goals to Transform Our World. https://openknowledge.fao.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/28b2fb42-a8f6-4274-91c7-ea10df6b43c8/content
Scholtz, M.M., Grobler, S.M., Jordaan, F.J., Pyoos, G.M., Makgahlela, L.M. and Seshoka, M.M. (2023) Challenges and Opportunities for Climate-Smart Beef Production under Climate Change in Southern Africa. In: Myeni, L., Moeletsi, M. and Vyfield, T., Eds., Climate - Smart Agriculture : Evidence - Based Case Studies in South Africa , Agricultural Research Council, 67-74.
Steinfeld, H., Gerber, P., Wassenaar, T., Castel, V., Rosales, M. and De Haan, C. (2006) Livestock’s Long Shadow: Environmental Issues and Options. FAO. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/239524071_Livestock's_Long_Shadow_Environmental_Issues_and_Options
Gerber, P., Steinfeld, H., Henderson, B., Mottet, A. and Dijkma, O.C. (2013) Tackling Climate Change through Livestock: A Global Assessment of Emissions and Mitigation Opportunities. http://www.fao.org/3/a-i3437e.pdf
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) (2011) Decontamination Re-search and Development Conference. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC. https://cfpub.epa.gov/si/si_public_record_report.cfm?Lab=NHSRC&dirEntryId=245110&fed_org_id=1253&subject=Homeland%20Security%20Research&view=desc&sortBy=pubDateYear&showCriteria=1&count=25&searchall=%27decontamination%20research%20workshops%27
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) (2022) Sources of Green-House Gas Emissions. https://www.epa.gov/ghgemissions/sources-greenhouse-gas-emissions
Ritchie, H. (2020) Sector by Sector: Where Do Global Greenhouse Gas Emissions Come from? https://ourworldindata.org/ghg-emissions-by-sector
Scholtz, M.M., Neser, F.W.C. and Makgahlela, M.L. (2020) A Balanced Perspective on the Importance of Extensive Ruminant Production for Human Nutrition and Livelihoods and Its Contribution to Greenhouse Gas Emissions. South African Journal of Science , 116, 1-3. https://doi.org/10.17159/sajs.2020/8192
Scholtz, M., Van Ryssen, J., Meissner, H. and Laker, M. (2013) A South African Perspective on Livestock Production in Relation to Greenhouse Gases and Water Usage. South African Journal of Animal Science , 43, 247-254. https://doi.org/10.4314/sajas.v43i3.2
Peters, G.M., Wiedemann, S.G., Rowley, H.V. and Tucker, R.W. (2010) Accounting for Water Use in Australian Red Meat Production. The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment , 15, 311-320. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11367-010-0161-x
Hoekstra, A.Y. and Chapagain, A.K. (2007) Globalization of Water: Sharing the Planet’s Freshwater Resources. Blackwell Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470696224
Grobler, S.M., Scholtz, M.M. and Pule, H.T. (2023) The Blue Water Footprint of Extensive Beef Production on Semi-Arid Rangeland over a Full Production Cycle in South Africa. Agricultural Sciences , 14, 335-345. https://doi.org/10.4236/as.2023.143021
Chabalala, N.T. (2024) The Farm Gate Carbon and Water Footprint of Diverse Beef Cattle Genotypes in South Africa and Its Environmental Impact. MSc in Agriculture, University of South Africa.
Mottet, A. (2023) Sustainability of Low-Input Livestock Systems. Book of Abstracts , 74 th Annual Meeting of the European Federation of Animal Science , Lyon, 26 August-1 September 2023, 152.
Assouma, M.H., Lecomte, P., Corniaux, C., Hiernaux, P., Ickowicz, A. and Vayssières, J. (2019) Pastoral Landscapes in the Sahel: A Carbon Balance with Unexpected Potential for Climate Change Mitigation. Perspective . https://www.researchgate.net/publication/337585129 https://doi.org/10.19182/agritrop/00083
Ndung’u, P.W., Bebe, B.O., Ondiek, J.O., Butterbach-Bahl, K., Merbold, L. and Goopy, J.P. (2019) Improved Region-Specific Emission Factors for Enteric Methane Emissions from Cattle in Smallholder Mixed Crop: Livestock Systems of Nandi County, Kenya. Animal Production Science , 59, 1136-1146. https://doi.org/10.1071/an17809
Gundula, I.A. (2014) Methane Emission Factors for Beef Cattle Genotypes in Feedlot and Grass-Fed Production Systems, South Africa. Master’s Thesis, University of the Free State, South Africa.
Scholtz, M.M., Jordaan, F.J., Thuli Chabalala, N., Pyoos, G.M., Joel Mamabolo, M. and Neser, F.W. (2023) A Balanced Perspective on the Contribution of Extensive Ruminant Production to Greenhouse Gas Emissions in Southern Africa. African Journal of Range & Forage Science , 40, 107-113. https://doi.org/10.2989/10220119.2022.2155247
McManus, C., Scholtz, M.M., Pimentel, D. and Pimentel, F. (2023) Bibliographic Mapping for Climate-Smart Agriculture in South Africa. In: Myeni, L., Moeletsi, M. and Vyfield, T., Eds., Climate - Smart Agriculture : Evidence - Based Case Studies in South Africa , Agricultural Research Council, 134-140.
Scholtz, M.M., McManus, C., Leeuw, K., Louvandini, H., Seixas, L., Melo, C.B.D., et al . (2013) The Effect of Global Warming on Beef Production in Developing Countries of the Southern Hemisphere. Natural Science , 5, 106-119. https://doi.org/10.4236/ns.2013.51a017
COP25 (2019) Climate Change in Africa. https://www.afdb.org/en/cop25/climate-change-africa
Scholes, R. and Engelbrecht, F. (2021) Climate Impacts in Southern Africa during the 21st Century. https://lifeaftercoal.org.za/wp-content/uploads/2021/10/Scholes-and-Engelbrecht.-2021.-Climate-impacts-in-Southern-Africa-during-the-21st-Century.pdf
Leeuw, K.J. and Scholtz, M.M. (2013) Cation-Anion Balance in Supplementary Feed to Mitigate Heat Stress in Grazing Beef Cattle. Applied Animal Husbandry & Rural Development , 6, 28-31.
Nichi, M., Bols, P.E.J., Züge, R.M., Barnabe, V.H., Goovaerts, I.G.F., Barnabe, R.C., et al. (2006) Seasonal Variation in Semen Quality in Bos Indicus and Bos Taurus Bulls Raised under Tropical Conditions. Theriogenology , 66, 822-828. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.theriogenology.2006.01.056
Scholtz, M.M., Maiwashe, A., Magadlela, M.A., Tjelele, T.J., Nkosi, B.D. and Matabane, M. (2016) The Reality of Drought, Consequences and Mitigation Strategies for Livestock Production in South Africa. Applied Animal Husbandry and Rural Development , 9, 6-10.
Scholtz, M.M., Grobler, S.M., Jordaan, F.J., Pyoos, G.M., Seshoka, M.M. and Neser, F.W.C. (2023) The Effect of Climate Change on Beef Production in Southern Africa: A Review. 8 th All Africa Conference on Animal Agriculture , Gaborone, Botswana, 26-29 September 2023, p 147. https://fliphtml5.com/icpyl/qdwk/Final_Abstract_Booklet_AACAA8/95/
Korir, D., Ndung’u, P., Marquardt, S., Balcha., Wilkes, A., Wisser, D., Lind, V. and Arndt, C. (2024) Revised Tier 2 Protocol for Enteric Methane Emissions from African Small Ruminants. International Research Symposium on Agricultural Greenhouse Gas Miti gation : From Research to Implementation , Berlin, Germany, 21-24 October 2024, 129. https://www.thuenen.de/media/publikationen/thuenen-workingpaper/ThuenenWorkingPaper_251.pdf
Balcha, E., Marquardt, S., Ndung’u, P., Onyango, A.A., Merbold, L., Korir, D., Wilkes, A., Wisser, D., Lind, V. and Arndt, C. (2024) Tier 2 Protocol for Enteric Methane Emissions from African Cattle. International Research Symposium on Agricultural Greenhouse Gas Mitigation : From Research to Implementation , Berlin, Germany, 21-24 October 2024, 105. https://www.thuenen.de/media/publikationen/thuenen-workingpaper/ThuenenWorkingPaper_251.pdf
Króliczewska, B., Pecka-Kiełb, E. and Bujok, J. (2023) Strategies Used to Reduce Methane Emissions from Ruminants: Controversies and Issues. Agriculture , 13, Article No. 602. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture13030602
Paz, H.A., Anderson, C.L., Muller, M.J., Kononoff, P.J. and Fernando, S.C. (2016) Rumen Bacterial Community Composition in Holstein and Jersey Cows Is Different under Same Dietary Condition and Is Not Affected by Sampling Method. Frontiers in Microbiology , 7, Article No. 1206. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2016.01206
Al-Saiady, M.Y. (2010) Effect of Probiotic Bacteria on Immunoglobulin G Concentration and Other Blood Components of Newborn Calves. Journal of Animal and Vete rinary Advances , 9, 604-609. https://doi.org/10.3923/javaa.2010.604.609
Cason, E.D., Alom, J., Barnard, J., Fair, M., Vermeulen, P.D. and Neser, F.W.C. (2022) 498. Preliminary Investigation into the Association of Members of the Rumen Biome with Production Traits in Afrikaner Cattle. In: Veerkamp, R.F. and de Haas, Y., Eds., Proceedings of 12 th World Congress on Genetics Applied to Livestock Production ( WCGALP ), Wageningen Academic Publishers, 2069-2072. https://doi.org/10.3920/978-90-8686-940-4_498
Methane Tracker (2021) Methane and Climate Change. https://www.iea.org/reports/methane-tracker-2021/methane-and-climate-change
Maia, A.S.C., de Faria, A.F.D.A., Castro, P.A., de Almeida, J.A.T., Moura, G.A.B., Milan, H.F.M. and Neto, M.C. (2022) Methane Emission in Holstein Animals and Mitigation with Shading from Photovoltaics Panel. Abstracts 8 th Conference on Greenhouse Gas and Animal Agriculture , Orlando, 3-11 June 2022, 146.
Mdyogolo, S. (2021) Detection of Selection Signatures and Genes Associated with Fitness in South African Afrikaner and Brahman Cattle. Ph.D Animal Breeding and Genetics, University of the Free State.
Pyoos-Daniels, G.M., MacNeil, M.D. and Neser, F.W.C. (2022) 436. Plasticity of Breed Direct and Individual Heterosis Effects in Beef Cattle under Extensive Conditions. In: Veerkamp, R.F. and de Haas, Y., Eds., Proceedings of 12 th World Congress on Genetics Applied to Livestock Production ( WCGALP ), Wageningen Academic Publishers, 1816-1819. https://doi.org/10.3920/978-90-8686-940-4_436
Pyoos, G.M. (2024) Breed Genetic and Heterosis Effects on Variability of Growth and Efficiency Traits in Beef Cattle. PhD in Animal Science, University of the Free State.
Tollefsbol, T.O. (2011) Advances in Epigenetic Technology. In: Tollefsbol, T., Ed., Methods in Molecular Biology , Humana Press, 1-10. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-61779-316-5_1
Scholtz, M.M., van Zyl, J.P. and Theunissen, A. (2014) The Effect of Epigenetic Changes on Animal Production. Applied Animal Husbandry and Rural Development , 7, 7-10.
Ibeagha-Awemu, M. and Wang, M. (2023) The Place of Epigenetics in the Livestock of Tomorrow. Book of Abstracts of 74 th Annual Meeting of the European Federation of Animal Science , Lyon, 26 August-1 September 2023, 231.