Background and Aim: Bauxite mining alters the physicochemical properties of the soil and has increased the levels of some heavy metals in the soil. The study quantifies Al, Cd, Cr, Cu, Mn, Pb and Zn in soils and six food crops collected from three post-mined and one unmined district in two physiographic regions of Guyana. Method: Sampling was conducted in agreement with the reiteration student’s t-test that was performed to determine appropriate sample size whose margin of error was 10.4% calculated on encountering Pb in soil samples. Twenty-seven soil samples and twenty-four food plant samples (including Brassica rapa cv. chinensis ; Spinacia oleracea ; Cocos nucifera L., Manihot esculenta , Apium graveolens and Lycopersicon esculentum ) were collected from four (three mined-out and one unmined) districts. Using ICP-OES/ICP-MS data, the author calculates geo-accumulation, and bioaccumulation factors and compares results with FAO/WHO Codex standards. In addition, chemical parameters like soil pH and organic matter contents were determined by Activation Laboratory Inc., an ISO 9001:2015: IEC/17025 accredited facility. With the data obtained, the geo-chemical index and bioaccumulation factor were calculated and compared with the FAO/WHO Codex Standards using one-way ANOVA and Pearson correlation using version 20 of the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences. QA/QC was performed in accordance with the standard laboratory procedure of Act Lab Inc. Results : In descending order, the mean heavy metals concentration (mg kg ? 1 ) in the soils was: Al > Mn > Zn > Cr > Pb > Cu > Cd. The heavy metal concentration in all soil samples did not exceed the permissible limits set by the FAO/WHO. Bauxite-mined soils did not affect soil pH or organic matter content but had significantly higher levels of lead and zinc (p Conclusion: A pH value of 6.4 and OM of 11.05% is desirable for the cultivation of food crops on the bauxite soil. It shows that leafy vegetables, tomato and cassava often exceed Joint FAO/WHO Codex permissible heavy metal limits, whereas coconut water remains below thresholds. The study indicates that some food crops grown in Guyana’s bauxite soils may have higher than normal permissible levels of heavy metals.
GoG (2013) Guyana National Land Use Plan. Guyana Lands and Surveys Commission.
Espinosa, E.R.J., David, D.L. and Alleyne, T.S. (2022) Soil Physical Properties and Textural Map in Guyana. Tropical Agriculture , 99, 268-281.
Benn, D.K., et al . (2021) Assessing Climate Change Impact on Guyana’s Crops Using Integrated Crop and Spatial Modeling Approaches.
Narine, R., Chandranauth, R., Chibi, S. and Homenauth, O. (2019) Evaluation of Five Hybrid Watermelon Varieties for Cultivation and Performance in Coastal Guyana South America. Agricultural Sciences , 10, 538-545. https://doi.org/10.4236/as.2019.104043
Cleveland, R.P. (2012) Second Report on the State of Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture in Guyana. Agronomy Science .
IDB, Guyana and the IDB Group (2024) Partnering for Resilience.
Jaikaran, S., Ansari, A.A. and Seecharran, D. (2017) Growth and Bioremediation Properties of Oyster Mushroom ( Pleurotus ostreatus ) Using Gold and Bauxite Mining Soils in Guyana. Mushroom Research , 26, 57-67.
Chairidchai, P. and Ritchie, G.S.P. (1990) Zinc Adsorption by a Lateritic Soil in the Presence of Organic Ligands. Soil Science Society of America Journal , 54, 1242-1248. https://doi.org/10.2136/sssaj1990.03615995005400050007x
Mateus, A.C.C., Oliveira, F.S.d., Varajão, A.F.D.C. and Soares, C.C.V. (2017) Genesis of Soils from Bauxite in Southeastern Brazil: Resilication as a Soil-Forming Process. Revista Brasileira de Ciência do Solo , 41, e0160507. https://doi.org/10.1590/18069657rbcs20160507
Kroonenberg, S., et al . (2019) Geology and Mineral Deposits of the Guiana Shield. Mededeling Geologisch Mijnbouwkundige Dienst Suriname , 29, 111-116.
BárDoSSy, G. and Aleva, G. (1990) Lateritic Bauxites. Developments in Economic Geology, Vol. 27, Elsevier, 1-311.
Beunk, F.F., de Roever, E.W.F., Yi, K. and Brouwer, F.M. (2021) Structural and Tectonothermal Evolution of the Ultrahigh-Temperature Bakhuis Granulite Belt, Guiana Shield, Surinam: Palaeoproterozoic to Recent. Geoscience Frontiers , 12, 677-692. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gsf.2020.05.021
Tan, K.-S. (1989) Adsorption and Desorption of Chromium on Clayey Soils.
Hurst, V.J. and Pickering, S.M. (1997) Origin and Classification of Coastal Plain Kaolins, Southeastern USA, and the Role of Groundwater and Microbial Action. Clays and Clay Minerals , 45, 274-285. https://doi.org/10.1346/ccmn.1997.0450215
Organic Matter Content
Bioaccumulation Factor
Geo-Accumulation Index
Post-Mining Bauxite Soils
Sposito, G. (2020) The Environmental Chemistry of Aluminum. CRC Press.
Eddleman, K. (2012) Bioaccumulation of Heavy Metals from Soils to Plants in Watersheds Contaminated by Acid Mine Drainage in SE Arizona. The University of Arizona.
Rengel, Z. (2015) Availability of Mn, Zn and Fe in the Rhizosphere. Journal of Soil Science and Plant Nu trition , 15, 397-409.
Hou, S., Zheng, N., Tang, L., Ji, X. and Li, Y. (2019) Effect of Soil Ph and Organic Matter Content on Heavy Metals Availability in Maize ( Zea mays L.) Rhizospheric Soil of Non-Ferrous Metals Smelting Area. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment , 191, 1-10. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-019-7793-5
Gautam, M., Pandey, D., Agrawal, S.B. and Agrawal, M. (2016) Metals from Mining and Metallurgical Industries and Their Toxicological Impacts on Plants. In: Singh, A., Prasad, S.M. and Singh, R.P., Eds., Plant Responses to Xenobiotics , Springer, 231-272. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-2860-1_10
Ahmad, W., Alharthy, R.D., Zubair, M., Ahmed, M., Hameed, A. and Rafique, S. (2021) Toxic and Heavy Metals Contamination Assessment in Soil and Water to Evaluate Human Health Risk. Scientific Reports , 11, Article No. 17006. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-94616-4
Dabo, A. (2015) The Impact of Bauxite Mining on the Health of Women and Children in Sangaredi (Guinea-West Africa). Indiana University.
Diallo, A.M., Konaté, A.A., Oularé, F. and Zaheer, M. (2022) Vulnerability of Groundwater to Pollution at the Dabiss Bauxite Mining Area, Boké Prefecture, Republic of Guinea. Geology , Ecology , and Landscapes , 8, 339-358. https://doi.org/10.1080/24749508.2022.2138012
Sikdar, A., Hossain, M.S. and Feng, S. (2020) Heavy Metal Pollution of Environment by Mine Tailings and the Potential Reclamation Techniques: A Review. Journal of Biology , Agriculture and Healthcare , 10, 33-37.
Kusin, F.M., Azani, N.N.M., Hasan, S.N.M.S. and Sulong, N.A. (2018) Distribution of Heavy Metals and Metalloid in Surface Sediments of Heavily-Mined Area for Bauxite Ore in Pengerang, Malaysia and Associated Risk Assessment. Catena , 165, 454-464. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2018.02.029
Muhammed, A. (2015) Heavy Metal Concentration in Cassava Cultivated on Re-Vegetatively Restored Mined Spoils at an Anglogold Concession, Obuasi-Ghana.
Ditzler, G. (2017) USDA Handbook 18. Government Printing Office.
Liu, X., Bai, Z., Zhou, W., Cao, Y. and Zhang, G. (2017) Changes in Soil Properties in the Soil Profile after Mining and Reclamation in an Opencast Coal Mine on the Loess Plateau, China. Ecological Engineering , 98, 228-239. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2016.10.078
Barrow, N.J. and Hartemink, A.E. (2023) The Effects of pH on Nutrient Availability Depend on Both Soils and Plants. Plant and Soil , 487, 21-37. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11104-023-05960-5
Arjoon, A., Olaniran, A.O. and Pillay, B. (2012) Co-Contamination of Water with Chlorinated Hydrocarbons and Heavy Metals: Challenges and Current Bioremediation Strategies. International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology , 10, 395-412. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13762-012-0122-y
Gnandi, K. and Tobschall, H. (2001) Heavy Metals Distribution of Soils around Mining Sites of Cadmium-Rich Marine Sedimentary Phosphorites of Kpogamé and Hahotoé (Southern Togo). Environmental Geology , 41, 593-600. https://doi.org/10.1007/s002540100425
Tessier, A., Fortin, D., Belzile, N., DeVitre, R.R. and Leppard, G.G. (1996) Metal Sorption to Diagenetic Iron and Manganese Oxyhydroxides and Associated Organic Matter: Narrowing the Gap between Field and Laboratory Measurements. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta , 60, 387-404. https://doi.org/10.1016/0016-7037(95)00413-0
Wuana, R.A. and Okieimen, F.E. (2011) Heavy Metals in Contaminated Soils: A Review of Sources, Chemistry, Risks and Best Available Strategies for Remediation. ISRN Ecology , 2011, Article ID: 402647. https://doi.org/10.5402/2011/402647
Tiller, K.G. (1989) Heavy Metals in Soils and Their Environmental Significance. In: Stewart, B.A., Ed., Advances in Soil Science , Springer, 113-142. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4612-3532-3_2
Zhuang, J. and Yu, G. (2002) Effects of Surface Coatings on Electrochemical Properties and Contaminant Sorption of Clay Minerals. Chemosphere , 49, 619-628. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0045-6535(02)00332-6
Hooda, P.S. (2003) A Special Issue on Heavy Metals in Soils: Editorial Foreword. Advances in Environmental Research , 8, 1-3. https://doi.org/10.1016/s1093-0191(03)00030-3
Gundlur, S. and Manjunathaiah, H. (2000) Distribution and Forms of Copper Fractions in Red and Lateritic Soils of North Karnataka.
Jansen, B. (2003) The Mobility of Aluminium, Iron and Organic Matter in Acidic. PhD Thesis, IBED, Universiteit van Amsterdam.
Alloway, B. (2008) Zinc in Soils and Crop Production. International Fertilizer Industry Association, 139.
Elnajdi, A., Berland, A., Haeft, J. and Dowling, C. (2023) Influence of Soil pH, Organic Matter, and Clay Content on Environmentally Available Lead in Soils: A Case Study in Muncie, Indiana, USA. Open Journal of Soil Science , 13, 414-430. https://doi.org/10.4236/ojss.2023.1310019
Brown, G.E. and Parks, G.A. (2001) Sorption of Trace Elements on Mineral Surfaces: Modern Perspectives from Spectroscopic Studies, and Comments on Sorption in the Marine Environment. International Geology Review , 43, 963-1073. https://doi.org/10.1080/00206810109465060
Adiaha, M. (2017) The Role of Organic Matter in Tropical Soil Productivity. World Scientific News , 86, 1-66.
Prematuri, R., Turjaman, M., Sato, T. and Tawaraya, K. (2020) Post Bauxite Mining Land Soil Characteristics and Its Effects on the Growth of Falcataria moluccana (Miq.) Barneby & J. W. Grimes and Albizia saman (Jacq.) Merr. Applied and Environmental Soil Science , 2020, Article ID: 6764380. https://doi.org/10.1155/2020/6764380
Vonk, W.J., van Ittersum, M.K., Reidsma, P., Zavattaro, L., Bechini, L., Guzmán, G., et al . (2020) European Survey Shows Poor Association between Soil Organic Matter and Crop Yields. Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems , 118, 325-334. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10705-020-10098-2
Di Carlo, E., Chen, C.R., Haynes, R.J., Phillips, I.R. and Courtney, R. (2019) Soil Quality and Vegetation Performance Indicators for Sustainable Rehabilitation of Bauxite Residue Disposal Areas: A Review. Soil Research , 57, 419-446. https://doi.org/10.1071/sr18348
Paul, C., et al . (1997) Managing a Fragile Ecosystem for Sustainable Agricultural Production.
Violante, A., Ricciardella, M. and Pigna, M. (2003) Adsorption of Heavy Metals on Mixed Fe-Al Oxides in the Absence or Presence of Organic Ligands. Water , Air , and Soil Pollution , 145, 289-306. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1023662728675
Avudainayagam, S., Megharaj, M., Owens, G., Kookana, R.S., Chittleborough, D. and Naidu, R. (2003) Chemistry of Chromium in Soils with Emphasis on Tannery Waste Sites. In: Ware, G.W., Ed., Reviews of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology : Continuation of Residue Reviews , Springer, 53-91. https://doi.org/10.1007/0-387-21728-2_3
Krstic, D., Djalovic, I., Nikezic, D. and Bjelic, D. (2012) Aluminium in Acid Soils: Chemistry, Toxicity and Impact on Maize Plants. In: Aladjadjiyan, A., Ed., Food Production — Approaches , Challenges and Tasks , InTech, 231-242. https://doi.org/10.5772/33077
Zhang, L., Tian, C., Waychunas, G.A. and Shen, Y.R. (2008) Structures and Charging of Α-Alumina (0001)/Water Interfaces Studied by Sum-Frequency Vibrational Spectroscopy. Journal of the American Chemical Society , 130, 7686-7694. https://doi.org/10.1021/ja8011116
Aftab, T. (2022) Sustainable Management of Environmental Contaminants: Eco-friendly Remediation Approaches. Springer Nature.
Antonious, G.F. and Snyder, J.C. (2007) Accumulation of Heavy Metals in Plants and Potential Phytoremediation of Lead by Potato, Solanum tuberosum L. Journal of Environmental Science and Health , Part A , 42, 811-816. https://doi.org/10.1080/10934520701304757
Mahurpawar, M. (2015) Effects of Heavy Metals on Human Health. International Journal of Research - Granthaalayah , 3, 1-7. https://doi.org/10.29121/granthaalayah.v3.i9se.2015.3282
Deepali, G. (2010) Chromium Uptake Efficiency of Spinacea olaracea from Contaminated Soil. Journal of Applied Sciences and Environmental Management , 13, 71-72. https://doi.org/10.4314/jasem.v13i4.55417
Angelova, V., Ivanova, R. and Ivanov, K. (2004) Heavy Metal Accumulation and Distribution in Oil Crops. Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis , 35, 2551-2566. https://doi.org/10.1081/lcss-200030368
Shivana, Soil and Plant Analysis 2020.
Carter, M.R. and Gregorich, E.G. (2007) Soil Sampling and Methods of Analysis. CRC Press.
Heiri, O., Lotter, A.F. and Lemcke, G. (2001) Loss on Ignition as a Method for Estimating Organic and Carbonate Content in Sediments: Reproducibility and Comparability of Results. Journal of Paleolimnology , 25, 101-110. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1008119611481
Nowrouzi, M. and Pourkhabbaz, A. (2014) Application of Geoaccumulation Index and Enrichment Factor for Assessing Metal Contamination in the Sediments of Hara Biosphere Reserve, Iran. Chemical Speciation & Bioavailability , 26, 99-105. https://doi.org/10.3184/095422914x13951584546986
Obaje, S.O., Ogunyele, A.C., Adeola, A.O. and Akingboye, A.S. (2019) Assessment of Stream Sediments Pollution by Potentially Toxic Elements in the Active Mining Area of Okpella, Edo State, Nigeria. Rudarsko - Geološko - Naftni Zbornik , 34, 43-50. https://doi.org/10.17794/rgn.2019.2.5
Nepal, A., Antonious, G.F., Bebe, F.N., Webster, T.C., Gyawali, B.R. and Neupane, B. (2024) Heavy Metal Accumulation in Three Varieties of Mustard Grown under Five Soil Management Practices. Environments , 11, Article No. 77. https://doi.org/10.3390/environments11040077
Oneț, A., Brejea, R., Dincă, L., Enescu, R., Oneț, C. and Besliu, E. (2022) Evaluation of Biological Characteristics of Soil as Indicator for Sustainable Rehabilitation of a Post-Bauxite-Mining Land. Diversity , 14, Article No. 1087. https://doi.org/10.3390/d14121087
Ricksy, P. (2021) Characteristics of Post Mining Soils in Indonesia and Its Remediation. Iwate University.
Barros, D.A.d., Pereira, J.A.A., Ferreira, M.M., Silva, B.M., Ferreira Filho, D. and Nascimento, G.d.O. (2013) Soil Physical Properties of High Mountain Fields under Bauxite Mining. Ciência e Agrotecnologia , 37, 419-426. https://doi.org/10.1590/s1413-70542013000500005
Alloway, B. (1995) Soil Processes and the Behaviour of Metals. Heavy Metals in Soils , 13, 3488.
Dwirama Putra, R., Apriadi, T., Suryanti, A., Irawan, H., Said Raja’I, T., Yulianto, T., et al . (2018) Preliminary Study of Heavy Metal (Zn, Pb, Cr, As, Cu, Cd) Contaminations on Different Soil Level from Post-Mining Bauxite Production for Aquaculture. E 3 S Web of Conferences , 47, Article No. 02008. https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/20184702008
Hu, Y., Yu, Z., Fang, X., Zhang, W., Liu, J. and Zhao, F. (2020) International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health , 17, Article No. 4288. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17124288
Hu, B., Jia, X., Hu, J., Xu, D., Xia, F. and Li, Y. (2017) Assessment of Heavy Metal Pollution and Health Risks in the Soil-Plant-Human System in the Yangtze River Delta, China. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health , 14, Article No. 1042. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph14091042
Townsend, F.C. (1970) The Influence of Sesquioxides on Some Physico-Chemical and Engineering Properties of a Lateritic Soil. Oklahoma State University.
Bishopp, D.W., et al . (1955) The Bauxite Resources of British Guiana and Their Development. Daily Chronicle.
Sulakhudin, Sukirno and Abdilla, A.M. (2023) Impact of Bauxite Mining on Soil Chemical Properties at Several Depths. IOP Conference Series : Earth and Environmental Science , 1165, Article ID: 012024. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/1165/1/012024
Li, et al . (2018) PTS in Aquatic Environment. In: Huang, X.-J., et al ., Eds., Persistent Toxic Substance Monitoring : Nanoelectrochemical Methods , Wiley, 15.
Borggaard, O.K., Holm, P.E. and Strobel, B.W. (2019) Potential of Dissolved Organic Matter (DOM) to Extract As, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb and Zn from Polluted Soils: A Review. Geoderma , 343, 235-246. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2019.02.041
Patinha, C., Kasemodel, M.C., Ferreira da Silva, E.A., Rodrigues, V.G. and Marques, J.P. (2019) Adsorption of Lead (Pb) in Strongly Weathered Tropical Soil (Ribeira Valley Region-Brazil). Earth Sciences Research Journal , 23, 385-395. https://doi.org/10.15446/esrj.v23n4.77869
Cotter, D.J. and Mishra, U.N. (1968) The Role of Organic Matter in Soil Manganese Equilibrium. Plant and Soil , 29, 439-448. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf01348975
Oluwatosin, G.A., Adeoyolanu, O.D., Ojo, A.O., Are, K.S., Dauda, T.O. and Aduramigba-Modupe, V.O. (2009) Heavy Metal Uptake and Accumulation by Edible Leafy Vegetable ( Amaranthus hybridus L.) Grown on Urban Valley Bottom Soils in Southwestern Nigeria. Soil and Sediment Contamination : An International Journal , 19, 1-20. https://doi.org/10.1080/15320380903252911
Diagboya, P.N., Olu-Owolabi, B.I. and Adebowale, K.O. (2015) Effects of Time, Soil Organic Matter, and Iron Oxides on the Relative Retention and Redistribution of Lead, Cadmium, and Copper on Soils. Environmental Science and Pollution Research , 22, 10331-10339. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-015-4241-0
Tsado, P., et al . (2012) Phosphorus Sorption Characteristics of Some Selected Soil of the Nigerian Guinea Savanna.
Bajraktari, D., Petrovska, B.B., Zeneli, L., Dimitrovska, A. and Kavrakovski, Z. (2020) Soil Chemical Evaluation and Power Plant Ash Impact on Chemical Properties of Salix alba L. (Fam. Salicaceae): The Impact of Bioaccumulation. Toxicology Research and Application , 4. https://doi.org/10.1177/2397847320924849
Khadka, D., Lamichhane, S. and Thapa, B. (2016) Assessment of Relationship between Soil pH and Macronutrients, Western Nepal. Journal of Chemical , Biological and Physical Sciences , 6, 303.
Nankishore, A. (2014) Heavy Metal Levels in Leafy Vegetables from Selected Markets in Guyana.
CAC (2015) General Standard for Contaminants and Toxins in Food and Feed (Codex Stan 193-1995). FAO, WHO.
CAC (2014) Joint FAO/WHO Food Standards Programme Codex Alimentarius Commission. Report of the Eighth Session of the Codex Committee on Contaminants in Foods.
Gobas, F.A.P.C. (2001) Assessing Bioaccumulation Factors of Persistent Organic Pollutants in Aquatic Food-Chains. In: Harrad, S., Ed., Persistent Organic Pollutants : Environmental Behaviour and Pathways of Human Exposure , Springer, 145-165. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4615-1571-5_6
Manikandan, S., Chidambaram, S., Prasanna, M.V. and Ganayat, R.R. (2019) Assessment of Heavy Metals Pollution and Stable Isotopic Signatures in Hard Rock Aquifers of Krishnagiri District, South India. Geosciences , 9, Article No. 200. https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences9050200
Shabala, S., White, R.G., Djordjevic, M.A., Ruan, Y. and Mathesius, U. (2016) Root-to-Shoot Signalling: Integration of Diverse Molecules, Pathways and Functions. Functional Plant Biology , 43, 87-104. https://doi.org/10.1071/fp15252