Along with decarbonization, the importance of renewable energy has increased significantly in the European Union (EU) since the turn of the century, and even more during the war in Ukraine. This study is an indication of how legislation making can be more a driver than an obstacle for innovation. The applied methodology includes an in-depth review of ca. 200 pieces of the EU legislation of the last half century, and a text mining exercise in the EU EUR-LEX database to provide a quantitative set of scores independent of the subjective expert judgment. The historical review of the EU law (“acquis”) reveals that many aspects of the geothermal value chain are covered by the acquis. The quantitative text search of EU policy documents and legal pieces indicates how the intensity of policy making correlates with major drivers on energy and on renewable energy. The regulatory environment of exploration and extraction of high enthalpy geothermal energy is similar to that for hydrocarbons, so some EU member states apply the Hydrocarbons Directive (Annex 32) voluntarily. The legislation on low enthalpy geothermal projects is more detailed regarding technical safety, water management, environment and energy efficiency. Because of conflicts with other emerging subsurface resource uses, such as groundwater/gas/carbon storage and urban underground infrastructure, there is a need for coherent regulatory practices. The broader coverage of this value chain is restricted by the current lack of acquis on spatial development, financial instruments, and geological assets. Addressing these is left to the respective sovereign regulations of member states.
KeywordsGeothermal EnergyRenewable EnergyLegal GovernanceEuropean Union
Angelino, L. (2017). Policy and Regulation for Geothermal Energy in the EU. In R. Bertani (Ed.), Perspectives for Geothermal Energy in Europe (pp. 255-287). World Scientific Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1142/9781786342324_0009
Barich, A., Stokłosa, A. W., Hildebrand, J., Elíasson, O., Medgyes, T., Quinonez, G., Casillas, A. C., & Fernandez, I. (2022). Social License to Operate in Geothermal Energy. Energies , 15 , Article No. 139. https://doi.org/10.3390/en15010139
Blanc, I., Damen, L., Douziech, M., Fiaschi, D., Harcouët-Menou, V., Manfrida, G., Mendecka, B., Parisi, M. L., Perez Lopez, P., Ravier, G., & Tosti, L. (2020). Harmonized Guidelines to Perform Environmental Assessment for Geothermal Systems Based on LCA and Non LCA Impact Indicators: LCA Guidelines for Geothermal Installations, Deliverable 3.2 of the GEOENVI Project (58 p.). https://www.geoenvi.eu/
Carrara, S., Bobba, S., Blagoeva, D., Alves Dias, P., Cavalli, A., Georgitzikis, K., Grohol, M., Itul, A., Kuzov, T., Latunussa, C., Lyons, L., Malano, G., Maury, T., Prior Arce, Á., Somers, J., Telsnig, T., Veeh, C., Wittmer, D., Black, C., Pennington, D., & Christou, M. (2023). Supply Chain Analysis and Material Demand Forecast in Strategic Tec h nologies and Sectors in the EU—A Foresight Study . Publications Office of the European Union.
Christmann, P., Diercks, T., Marlet, C., Hámor, T. et al. (2014). Recommendations on the Framework Conditions for the Extraction of Non-Energy Raw Materials in the Eur o pean Union (35 p.). Report of the Ad Hoc Working Group on Exchange of Best Practices in Minerals Policy and Legal Framework, Information Framework, Land-Use Planning and Permitting, Brussels.
Chudy, K. (2022). Mine Water as Geothermal Resource in Nowa Ruda Region (SW Poland). Water , 14 , Article No. 136. https://doi.org/10.3390/w14020136
Dumas, P. (2019). Policy and Regulatory Aspects of Geothermal Energy: A European Perspective. In A. Manzella, A. Allansdottir, & A. Pellizzone (Eds.), Geothermal Energy and Society (pp. 19-37). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-78286-7_2
Durling, J., Spörker, T., Posselt, J. P., Danvers, C., Limet, F., Ferket, H., Diop, Y., Trombitás, P., Bányácski, S., Hámor, T. et al. (2017). Onshore Oil and Gas Regulation, Sha r ing Regulatory Best Practice in Regulating the Exploration and Production of the O n shore Oil and Gas Industry, Including Unconventional Fossil Fuels and High-Volume Hydraulic Fracturing (33 p.). IMPEL Report No. 2016/01. https://www.impel.eu/projects/onshore-oil-and-gas-regulation https://doi.org/10.35248/2684-124X.16.1.103
European Commission (1994). For a European Union Energy Policy; Green Paper ( COM( 94)659) .
European Commission (1995). An Energy Policy for the European Union; White Paper ( COM( 95)682) .
European Commission (1997). Energy for the Future: Renewable Sources of Energy; White Paper for a Community Strategy and Action Plan ( COM( 97)599) .
European Commission (2004). The Share of Renewable Energy in the EU; ( COM( 2004)0366 ) .
European Commission (2006). Green Paper Follow-Up Action. Report on Progress in Renewable Electricity; ( COM( 2006)0849) .
European Commission (2008). The Raw Materials Initiative: Meeting Our Critical Needs for Growth and Jobs in Europe; (COM/2008/0699) .
European Commission (2011a). Final Report on Unconventional Gas in Europe. Philippe & Partners, Brussels; Service Contract for Legal Assistance TREN/R1/350-2008 (104 p.).
European Commission (2011b). Renewable Energy: Progressing towards the 2020 Target. 2011; ( COM( 2011)31) .
European Commission (2012a). Making Raw Materials Available for Europe’s Future Well-Being. Proposal for a European Innovation Partnership on Raw Materials; ( COM/2012/082) .
European Commission (2012b). Renewable Energy: A Major Player in the European Energy Market; ( COM( 2012)271) .
European Commission (2012c). Unconventional Gas: Potential Energy Market Impacts in the European Union (328 p.).
European Commission (2014). Recommendation on Minimum Principles for the Expl o ration and Production of Hydrocarbons (Such as Shale Gas) Using High-Volume H y draulic Fracturing; (2014/70/EU) .
European Commission (2015). Closing the Loop—An EU Action Plan for the Circular Economy; ( COM/2015/0614) .
European Commission (2016). An EU Strategy on Heating and Cooling; ( COM( 2016)51) .
European Commission (2021a). Progress on Competitiveness of Clean Energy Technol o gies 1. Macroeconomic; ( SWD( 2021) 307) .
European Commission (2021b). Strategic Foresight Report, The EU’s Capacity and Fre e dom to Act; ( COM( 2021)750) .
European Council Resolution of 16 September 1986 Concerning New Community Energy Policy Objectives for 1995 and Convergence of the Policies of the Member States OJ C 241, 25.9.1986 (pp. 1-3).
European Parliament (2012a). Resolution of 21 November 2012 on the Environmental Impacts of Shale Gas and Shale Oil Extraction Activities; ( 2011/2308(INI) ) .
European Parliament (2012b). Resolution on Microgeneration —Small-Scale Electricity and Heat Generation; (2012/2930(RSP)) .
European Parliament Resolution of 18 January 2024 on Geothermal Energy (2023/2111(INI)) .
Eurostat (2022). Complete Energy Balances [ nrg_bal_c ] . https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat
Garbarino, E., Orveillon, G., Hamor, T., Saveyn, H. G. M., & Eder, P. (2021). Collection of Available Techniques for the Prevention or Reduction of Environmental Impacts in Non-Energy Extractive Industries (NEEI) . JRC Science for Policy Report, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg.
Goertz-Allmann, B. P., Goertz, A., & Wiemer, S. (2011). Stress Drop Variations of Induced Earthquakes at the Basel Geothermal Site. Geophysical Research Letters , 38 , L09308. https://doi.org/10.1029/2011GL047498
Goodman, R., Pasquali, R., Kepinska, B., Sanner, B., Hámor, T., Reay, D., Jaudin, F. et al. (2009). Geothermal Legislation in Europe. In 71st EAGE Conference (pp. 23-27). European Association of Geoscientists & Engineers. http://www.earthdoc.org/publication/publicationdetails/?publication=24395 https://doi.org/10.3997/2214-4609.201404954
Hahnlein, S., Bayer, P., & Blum, P. (2010). International Legal Status of the Use of Shallow Geothermal Energy. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews , 14 , 2611-2625. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2010.07.069
Hámor, T. (2004). Sustainable Mining in the European Union: The Legislative Aspect. Environmental Management , 33 , 252-261. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00267-003-0081-7
Hámor, T. (2006). The Kistelek Declaration. European Geologist, 21 , 20-22.
Hámor, T. (2020). The History of Geological Authorities in Hungary. Földtani Közlöny , 150, 195-208. https://doi.org/10.23928/foldt.kozl.2020.150.1.195
Hámor, T., Hámor-Vidó, M., & Correia, V. (2020). Geology, the Regulated Discipline and Profession in Europe. Episodes , 44 , 219-226. https://doi.org/10.18814/epiiugs/2020/020075
Hámor, T., Tyrologou, P., & Hámor-Vidó, M. (2023). Geology in Legislation Making: Past Experience, and Future Opportunities in Europe. European Geologist, No. 56, 4-11.
Hámor, T., Bódis, K., & Hámor-Vidó, M. (2021a). The Legal Governance of Oil and Gas in Europe: An Indicator Analysis of the Implementation of the Hydrocarbons Directive. Energies , 14 , Article No. 6411. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14196411
Hámor, T., Vidal-Legaz, B., Zampori, L., Eynard, U., & Pennington, D. (2021b). Bac k ground Study on the Environmental Impact Assessment of Non-Energy Minerals E x traction Projects with Regard to European Union Community Requirements . JRC Technical Report 2021.
Hámor-Vidó, M., Hámor, T., & Czirok, L. (2021). Underground Space: The Legal Governance of a Critical Resource in Circular Economy. Resources Policy , 73 , Article ID: 102171. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resourpol.2021.102171
Hartai, É., & Madarász, T. (2019). Co-Production of Clean Energy and Metals—The CHPM Concept. European Geologist , 47 , 10-14. https://issuu.com/efgoffice/docs/egj47
International Energy Agency (2020). European Union Energy Policy Review 2020 (310 p.).
Lund, J. W., & Tóth, A. N. (2020). Direct Utilization of Geothermal Energy 2020, Worldwide Review. Geothermics , 90 , Article ID: 101915. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geothermics.2020.101915
Matláry, J. H. (1997). Energy Policy in the European Union . Macmillan Publishers Limited. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-25735-5
Mitchell, D., Spörker, T., Machetanz, K., Posselt, J. P., Danvers, C., Diop, Y., Hámor, T. et al. (2016). Best Practice in Regulating Onshore Oil and Gas Operations (Including Shale Gas) (26 p.). IMPEL Report No. 2015/03.
Montanarella, L. (2015). Agricultural Policy: Govern Our Soils. Nature , 528 , 32-33. https://doi.org/10.1038/528032a
Soltani, M., Kashkooli, F. M., Souri, M., Rafiei, B., Jabarifar, M., Gharali, K., & Nathwani, J. S. (2020). Environmental, Economic, and Social Impacts of Geothermal Energy Systems. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews , 140 , Article ID: 110750. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2021.110750
Tomasini-Montenegro, C., Santoyo-Castelazo, E., Gujba, H., Romero, R. J., & Santoyo, E. (2017). Life Cycle Assessment of Geothermal Power Generation Technologies: An Updated Review. Applied Thermal Engineering , 114 , 1119-1136. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2016.10.074
Tosti, L., Parisi, M. L., & Basosi, R. (2021). Life Cycle Assessment of Geothermal Power Plants. In C. O. Colpan, M. A. Ezan, & O. Kizilkan (Eds.), Thermodynamic Analysis and Optimization of Geothermal Power Plants (pp. 53-63). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-821037-6.00017-2
Tsagarakis, K. P., Efthymiou, L., Michopoulos, A., Mavragani, A., Anđelković, A. S., Antolini, F., Bacic, M., Bajare, D. et al. (2020). A Review of the Legal Framework in Shallow Geothermal Energy in Selected European Countries: Need for Guidelines. Renew a ble Energy , 147 , 2556-2571. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2018.10.007
Verhoeven, R., Willems, E., Harcouët-Menou, V., De Boever, E., Hiddes, L., Op’t Veld, P., & Demollin, E. (2014). Minewater 2.0 Project in Heerlen the Netherlands: Transformation of a Geothermal Mine Water Pilot Project into a Full Scale Hybrid Sustainable Energy Infrastructure for Heating and Cooling. Energy Procedia , 46 , 58-67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.egypro.2014.01.158