This article addresses the challenges and opportunities related to the decommissioning of offshore structures, focusing on Very Large Floating Structures (VLFS), considering technical, regulatory, environmental, and economic aspects, and evaluating the potential for sustainable reuse of these structures in the context of the energy transition and circular economy. A multidisciplinary review was conducted involving national and international regulations, offshore industry case studies, technological innovations applied to decommissioning, and environmental and socioeconomic analyses. The research included a survey of key removal technologies, an evaluation of decommissioning methods (total removal, partial removal, toppling, repurposing), and a study of environmental-governance practices, sustainability, and local social impacts. Decommissioning is a complex process structured around early planning, deactivation and removal of structures, material recycling, and environmental monitoring. Total-removal methods eliminate future environmental risks but entail high costs and operational impacts. Partial-removal and toppling methods are cost-effective alternatives but leave submerged debris whose environmental impact must be monitored. Repurposing VLFS emerges as a promising option, allowing structures to be converted into platforms for renewable energy, research, and logistics use, thereby promoting a circular economy and cutting emissions tied to material manufacturing and transport. Advanced technologies such as abrasive water-jets, underwater drones, and digital modelling enhance safety and reduce environmental impacts. Socio-environmental governance and public policy are essential to integrating sustainability, social responsibility, and industrial competitiveness. Sustainable decommissioning of VLFS should be treated as a strategic opportunity for the energy transition and for the sustainable development of the maritime industry. Sustainable decommissioning of VLFS should be viewed as a strategic opportunity for the energy transition and the sustainable development of the maritime industry. The incorporation of innovative and sustainable practices, coupled with effective governance and cooperation between public and private stakeholders, is crucial to maximizing environmental, social, and economic benefits, transforming VLFS into valuable assets beyond their productive lifespan, in alignment with global decarbonization and circular economy goals.
A&O Shearman (2023). Q&A: What Disputes Risks Will Flow from the Decommissioning of High-Carbon Infrastructure . https://www.aoshearman.com/en/insights/decarbonization-disputes/
Albeldawi, M. (2023). Chapter 10—Environmental Impacts and Mitigation Measures of Offshore Oil and Gas Activities. Developments in Petroleum Science, 78, 313-352.
Amorim, C. A. (2010). Comparative Analysis of Different Types of Offshore Platforms . UFRJ.
Antunes, P. de B. (2009). Environmental Law . Atlas.
ATSE—Australian Academy of Technological Sciences & Engineering (2024). Offshore Oil and Gas Decommissioning—Technologies . Report. https://www.atse.org.au/what-we-do/strategic-advice/offshore-oil-and-gas-decommissioning-technologies
Bastos, E. E. G., & Moura, A. R. B. (2023). Children of the Wind: Wind Energy and Socio-environmental Impacts in the Cumbe Quilombo, in Aracati . Undergraduate Thesis, Federal University of Ceará.
Ben-Hamadou, R., Mohamed, A. M. D., Dimassi, S. N., Razavi, M. M., Alshuiael, S. M., & Sulaiman, M. O. (2022). Assessing and Reporting Potential Environmental Risks Associated with Reefing Oil Platform during Decommissioning in Qatar. In L. Cochrane, & R. Al-Hababi (Eds.), Sustainable Qatar (pp. 167-191). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-7398-7_10
Bim, E. F. (2017). Decommissioning Offshore Oil and Gas Installations. Revista do Advogado, 37, 60-66.
BOEM—Bureau of Ocean Energy Management (2004). An Assessment of Techniques for Removing Offshore Structures . U.S. Department of the Interior. https://www.boem.gov/sites/default/files/boem-newsroom/Library/Publications/2004/2004-074.pdf
BOEM—Bureau of Ocean Energy Management (2018). Rigs-to-Reefs Program in the Gulf of Mexico .
BRAGA, Gonçalo Mesquita Guimarães Oliveira (2016). Desenvolvimento de tecnologia para produção de energia a partir do movimento de plataformas flutuantes offshore multi-funcionais . Dissertação (Mestrado em Engenharia Civil), Universidade do Porto.
Calderon, H. L. (2021). Economia circular e o descomissionamento offshore: Desafios e oportunidades .
CIRP Encyclopedia of Production Engineering (2019). Water-Jet Cutting . Springer.
Climate and Pollution Agency (CPA) (2011). Guidelines for Decommissioning Activities . Ministry of Environment Norway.
Platform Reuse
Colaleo, G., Nardo, F., Azzellino, A., & Vicinanza, D. (2022). Decommissioning of Offshore Platforms in Adriatic Sea: The Total Removal Option from a Life Cycle Assessment Perspective. Energies, 15, Article No. 9325. https://doi.org/10.3390/en15249325
Cruz, D. S., & Santos, J. V. M. (2019). Tendência do Descomissionamento de Plataformas Marítimas no Brasil . TCC-Universidade Federal Fluminense.
Da Costa, L. F., Losekann, D. V., Oliveira, D. R. d., Dos Santos, E. M., Costa, H. K. M., & Brito, T. L. F. (2021). Decommissioning of Petroleum Production: Decommissioning Methods and CO 2 Capture. Brazilian Journal of Development, 7, 88186-88200. https://doi.org/10.34117/bjdv7n9-128
DEP2WIND (2024). A Data-Driven Framework towards Sustainable Reuse of Decommissioned Petroleum Platforms as Support Structures for Wind Energy Production . European Commission/CORDIS.
Ekins, P., Vanner, R., & Firebrace, J. (2006). Decommissioning of Offshore Oil and Gas Facilities: A Comparative Assessment of Different Scenarios. Journal of Environmental Management , 79 , 420-438. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16373078/
FGV ENERGIA (2024). Cadernos FGV Energia: Descomissionamento Offshore no Brasil—Perspectivas e Alternativas para um Futuro Sustentável .
Fontes, Y. M. (2022). Energia em alto mar: Considerações sobre a implantação de usinas solares offshore e seus Efeitos. Pensar Acadêmico, 20, 716-723. https://doi.org/10.21576/pa.2022v20i3.3503
Freitas, A. J. C. de (2013). A aquicultura marinha offshore: Desafios e oportun-idades para a inovação e sustentabilidade do negócio . Dissertação (Mestrado em Gestão), ISCTE.
IBAMA (2015). Diretrizes ambientais para descomissionamento de instalações de produção de petróleo e gás offshore . IBAMA.
IBAMA—Instituto Brasileiro do Meio Ambiente e dos Recursos Naturais Renováveis (2022). Diretrizes para Avaliação Ambiental de Projetos de Descomissionamento Offshore . IBAMA.
Lamas-Pardo, M., Iglesias, G., & Carral, L. (2015). A Review of Very Large Floating Structures (VLFS) for Coastal and Offshore Uses. Ocean Engineering, 109, 677-690. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oceaneng.2015.09.012
Machado, C. A. M.; Teixeira, C. A., & Vilani, C. M. (2013). Descomissionamento de Instalações Offshore no Brasil: Aspectos regulatórios e ambientais. Revista Brasileira de Energia, 19, 73-91.
Martins, C. F. (2015). O descomissionamento de estruturas de produção offshore no Brasil . Monografia—UFES. https://engenhariaambiental.ufes.br/sites/ambiental.ufes.br/files/field/anexo/o_descomissionamen-to_de_estruturas_de_producao_offshore_no_brasil_-_cecilia_freitas_martins.pdf
Martins, C. P. (2018). A transição energética e os impactos socioambientais do descomis-sionamento de sistemas de geração de energia elétrica . UFSC.
Meireles, T. P. B., Pereira, N. N., & Rodrigues, L. M. (2022). Aspectos jurídicos e constitucionais do descomissionamento e reciclagem de embarcações aban-donadas na Baía de Guana bara dentro do limite territorial do município de Niterói/RJ entre 2021 e 2022 . Dissertação (Mestrado em Direito Constitucional), Faculdade de Direito, Universidade Federal Fluminense.
Menezes, W. (2015). Direito do Mar: Desafios e perspectivas . Arraes Editores.
Milaré, E. (2015). Direito do Ambiente . Revista dos Tribunais.
National Academies of Sciences (1996). An Assessment of Techniques for Removing Offshore Structures . The National Academies Press.
National Petroleum, Natural Gas and Biofuels Agency (ANP) (2020). ANP Resolution No. 817, of April 24, 2020. Provides for the Decommissioning of Oil and Natural Gas Exploration and Production Facilities and Other Measures . Official Gazette of the Union: Section 1. https://www.gov.br/anp/pt-br/assuntos/exploracao-e-producao-de-oleo-e-gas/seguranca-operacional/descomissionamento-de-instalacoes
NST Authority (2024). Technology Insights-Facilities Decommissioning 2024 . United Kingdom.
Oceaneering International (2024). Cutting Solutions for Offshore Decommissioning . Oceaneering. https://www.oceaneering.com/decommissioning/cutting-solutions/
Offshore Network (2025). Enhancing Decommissioning with Advanced Technologies . https://offsnet.com/content/north-america/enhancing-decommissioning-with-advanced-technologies
Oil and Gas UK (OGUK) (2014). Decommissioning Work Breakdown Structure Guidelines . https://oeuk.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2022/09/OGUK-Decommissioning-Work-Breakdown-Structure-Guidelines.pdf
Petrobras (2023a). Descomissionamento Offshore—Diretrizes Técnicas e Ambientais . Petrobras.
Petrobras (2023b). Plano Estratégico 2024-2028 . Petrobras. https://static.poder360.com.br/2023/12/Plano-Estrategico-Petrobras-2024-2028.pdf
Pinheiro, M.S., & Monteiro, P. R. D. (2023). Decommissioning Strategies for Fixed Offshore Platforms in Brazil. In Uniting Knowledge Integrated Scientific Research for Global Development . Seven Editora. https://doi.org/10.56238/uniknowindevolp-012
Quissanga, V. M., Nascimento, E. A. d., & Galgoul, N. S. (2020). Feasibility Study for the Reuse of a Fixed Offshore Platform as a Substructure for Wind Towers. Research, Society and Development, 9, e8618. https://doi.org/10.33448/rsd-v9i10.8618
Rosado, M. (2015). Temas de Direito do Mar e a Atividade Petrolífera. In W. Menezes (Ed.), Direito do Mar: Desafios e perspectivas (p. 27). Arraes Editores.
Ruivo, C., Morooka, C., & Guerra, J. (2001). Descomissionamento de Instalações Offshore: Desafios técnicos e ambientais . Interciência.
Sammarco, P., Atchison, A., & Boland, G. (2004). Expansion of Coral Communities within the Northern Gulf of Mexico via Offshore Oil and Gas Platforms. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 280, 129-143. https://doi.org/10.3354/meps280129
Sande, E. A. (2015). A ANP e o Poder Militar—A Segurança e a Defesa das Plata - formas Offshore . Monografia—Escola Superior de Guerra.
Santos, F. O. dos et al. (2024). Abordagem multicritério para descomissionamento de in-stalações petrolíferas offshore na Bacia de Campos. In ENMC/ECTM 2024 (p. 12). IFF.
Schenato, F. et al. (2013). NORM seresíduos radioativos na indústria do petróleo e gás . CNEN.
Simpson, G. (1998). The Environmental Management Aspects of Decommissioning Offshore Structures. In D. G. Gorman, & J. Neilson (Eds.), Decommissioning Offshore Structures (pp. 1-21). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4471-1552-6_1
Sinaval (2024). Brasil avança no descomissionamento com foco em sustentabilidade, apontam agentes . https://sinaval.org.br/2024/10/brasil-avanca-no-descomissionamento-com-foco-em-sustentabilidade-apontam-agentes/
Syriac, R., & Prakash, M. N. S. (2022). A Review on the Reuse Possibilities of Decommissioned Offshore Fixed Platforms for Marine Renewable Energy Applications. Journal of Naval Architecture and Marine Engineering, 19, 71-82. https://doi.org/10.3329/jname.v19i2.50359
Teixeira, B. M. (2013a). Aprimoramento da política pública ambiental da cadeia produti-va de óleo e gás offshore no Brasil: O descomissionamento das tecnologias de ex-ploração . Tese (Doutorado), UERJ.
Teixeira, C. A. (2013b). Descomissionamento de plataformas marítimas e sustentabilidade ambiental . IBP.
TOTAL (2010). Frigg Decommissioning Project—Environmental Statement . Total E&P.
UNCLOS (1996). United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea Act .
United Kingdom Government (UK Government) (2023). The Use and Environmental Impact of Explosives in the Decommissioning of Offshore Wells and Facilities . UK Department for Energy Security and Net Zero.
UTPEDIA (2024). Decommissioning Options Assessment on Environmental Impact . UTP.
Vieira Barboza, D., Jasmim Meiriño, M., Da Silveira Barros, S. R., & Fernandes Bella, R. L. (2023). Towards the Sustainable Decommissioning of Fixed Platforms by Aligning Ecosystem Services and Wind Generation: A Brazilian Case. International Journal of Energy Economics and Policy, 13, 235-242. https://doi.org/10.32479/ijeep.14114
Wei, X., & Zhou, J. (2024). Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis for Sustainable Oil and Gas Infrastructure Decommissioning: A Systematic Review of Criteria Involved in the Process. Sustainability, 16, Article No. 7205. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16167205
Yamamoto, M., Wada, R., Kamizawa, K., & Takagi, K. (2017). The Concept of Flt. Marine Systems & Ocean Technology, 12, 104-116. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40868-017-0027-1