Despite the limitations on time for career preparedness and shrinking professional development budgets, mentoring remains as important as ever due to the interconnectedness in a global society and the changing demographics of postsecondary education students. The traditional-age population in college that lives on campus and do es not work has been declining for over three decades. The majorit ies of current students that are now non-traditional, and work at least part-time are first-generation, and are pursuing degrees via distance or online learning. The importance of providing a diverse mentoring strategy for this new population is borne out in research in order to improve retention, persistence, and completion rates, as well as future professional success. As such, this study sheds light on the need to develop a multi-modal mentoring program to support different student populations through a flexible combination of faculty-student, student-student, alumni-student, and supervisor-student mentoring programs applied in different contexts and modalities. While results indicate that overall faculty-initiated mentoring is preferred by both populations and the most impactful method for mentoring is face-to-face with a faculty member with non-academic experience in the field of their discipline, other approaches are more effective for populations, such as first-generation, minority, and online and graduate students.
Allen, I. E., & Seaman, J. (2014). Grade Change: Tracking Online Education in the United States. Babson Survey Research Group and Quahog Research Group, LLC. http://www.onlinelearningsurvey.com/reports/gradechange.pdf
Almond, L., Parson, L., & Resor, J. (2021). Lessons from the Field: Graduate Student-Faculty Mentoring in Family Science. Family Relations, 70, 1600-1611. https://doi.org/10.1111/fare.12517
Andersen, C. L., & West, R. E. (2020). Improving Mentoring in Higher Education in Undergraduate Education and Exploring Implications for Online Learning. Revista de Educación a Distancia, 20, Article 2. https://doi.org/10.6018/red.408671
Andrew, M. (2012). Supervising Doctorates at a Distance: Three Trans-Tasman Stories. Quality Assurance in Education, 20, 42-53. https://doi.org/10.1108/09684881211198239
Andrews, K. (2016). Correlation between Mentors and Learners Perceptions of Mentors Behaviors in Completing Online Doctoral Dissertations. Journal of Higher Education Theory and Practice, 16, 71-80.
Appelbaum, I. (2000). Mentoring: A Strategy to Recruit and Retain Top PR Professionals. Public Relations Strategist, 6, 18-20.
Argente-Linares, E., Péres-López, M. C., & Ordónez-Solana, C. (2017). Practical Experience of Blended Mentoring in Higher Education. Mentoring & Tutoring: Partnership in Learning, 24, 399-414. https://doi.org/10.1080/13611267.2016.1273449
AuCoin, D. J., & Wright, L. A. (2021). Student Perceptions in Online Higher Education toward Faculty Mentoring. E-Learning and Digital Media, 18, 599-615. https://doi.org/10.1177/20427530211022927
Baker, V. L., Gonzales, L. D., & Terosky, A. L. (2020). Faculty-Inspired Strategies for Early Career Success across Institutional Types: The Role of Mentoring. In B. J. Irby, J. N. Boswell, L. J. Searby, F. Kochan, R. Garza, & N. Abdelrahman (Eds.), The Wiley International Handbook of Mentoring: Paradigms, Practices, Programs, and Possibilities (pp. 223-241). Wiley Online Library. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119142973.ch14
Baranik, L. E., Wright, N. A., & Reburn, K. L. (2017). Mentoring Relationships in Online Classes. The Internet and Higher Education, 34, 65-71. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iheduc.2017.05.001
Barnes, B. J., & Austin, A. E. (2009). The Role of Doctoral Advisors: A Look at Advising from the Advisor’s Perspective. Innovative High Education, 33, 297-315. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10755-008-9084-x
Beaudoin, M. (1990). The Instructor’s Changing Role in Distance Education. American Journal of Distance Education, 4, 21-29. https://doi.org/10.1080/08923649009526701
Bills, D. (2003). Credentials, Signals, and Screens: Explaining the Relationship between Schooling and Job Assignment. Review of Educational Research, 73, 441-469. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543073004441
Black, R. (2017). E-Mentoring the Online Doctoral Student from the Dissertation Prospectus through Dissertation Completion. Journal of Learning in Higher Education, 13, 1-8.
Bottoms, S. I., Pegg, J., Adams, A., Risser, H. S., & Wu, K. (2020). Mentoring within Communities of Practice. The Wiley International Handbook of Mentoring: Paradigms, Practices, Programs, and Possibilities (pp. 141-166)
Bourdieu, P. (1986). The Forms of Capital. In J. Richardson (Ed.), Handbook of Theory and Research for the Sociology of Education (pp. 241-258). Greenwood.
Bozeman, B., & Feeney, M. K. (2007). Toward a Useful Theory of Mentoring: A Conceptual Analysis and Critique. Administration & Society, 39, 719-739. https://doi.org/10.1177/0095399707304119
Brondyk, S. (2020). Mentoring as Loose Coupling: Theory in Action. In B. J. Irby, J. N. Boswell, L. J. Searby, F. Kochan, R. Garza, & N. Abdelrahman (Eds.), The Wiley International Handbook of Mentoring: Paradigms, Practices, Programs, and Possibilities (pp. 79-96). Wiley Online Library. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119142973.ch6
Brondyk, S., & Searby, L. (2013). Best Practices in Mentoring: Complexities and Possibilities. International Journal of Mentoring and Coaching in Education, 2, 189-203. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJMCE-07-2013-0040
Brunsma, D. L., Embrick, D. G., & Shin, J. H. (2017). Graduate Students of Color: Race, Racism, and Mentoring in the White Waters of Academia. Sociology of Race and Ethnicity, 3, 1-13. https://doi.org/10.1177/2332649216681565
Byrnes, D., Uribe-Flórez, L. J., Trespalacios, J., & Chilson, J. (2019). Doctoral E-Mentoring: Current Practices and Effective Strategies. Online Learning Journal, 23, 236-248. https://doi.org/10.24059/olj.v23i1.1446
Cajiao, J., & Burke, M. J. (2016). How Instructional Methods Influence Skill Development in Management Education. Academy of Management Learning and Education, 15, 508-524. https://doi.org/10.5465/amle.2013.0354
Chao, G. T., Walz, P. M., & Gardner, P. D. (1992). Formal and Informal Mentorships: A Comparison of Mentoring Functions and Contrast with Nonmentored Counterparts. Personnel Psychology, 45, 619-636. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6570.1992.tb00863.x
Cohen, N. (1995). Mentoring Adult Learners: A Guide for Educators and Trainers. Krieger Publishing Company.
Coleman, J. S. (1988). Social Capital in the Creation of Human Capital. American Journal of Sociology, 94, S95-S120. https://doi.org/10.1086/228943
Columbaro, N. L. (2009). e-Mentoring Possibilities for Online Doctoral Students: A Literature Review. Adult Learning, 20, 9-15. https://doi.org/10.1177/104515950902000305
Colvin, J. W., & Ashman, M. (2010). Roles, Risks, and Benefits of Peer Mentoring Relationships in Higher Education. Mentoring & Tutoring: Partnerships in Learning, 18, 121-134. https://doi.org/10.1080/13611261003678879
Cornelius, V., Wood, L., & Lai, J. (2016). Implementation and Evaluation of a Formal Academic-Peer-Mentoring Programme in Higher Education. Active Learning in Higher Education, 17, 193-205. https://doi.org/10.1177/1469787416654796
Crisp, G., & Cruz, I. (2009). Mentoring College Students: A Critical Review of the Literature between 1990 and 2007. Research in Higher Education, 50, 525-545. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11162-009-9130-2
Curtin, N., Malley, J., & Stewart, A. J. (2016). Mentoring the Next Generation of Faculty: Supporting Academic Career Aspirations among Doctoral Students. Research in Higher Education, 57, 714-738. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11162-015-9403-x
Dede, C. (1996). The Evolution of Distance Education: Emerging Technologies and Distributed Learning. The American Journal of Distance Education, 10, 4-36. https://doi.org/10.1080/08923649609526919
Dominguez, N., & Kochan, F. (2020). Defining Mentoring: An Elusive Search for Meaning and a Path for the Future. In B. J. Irby et al. (Eds.), The Wiley International Handbook of Mentoring: Paradigms, Practices, Programs, and Possibilities (pp. 1-18). John Wiley & Sons, Inc. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119142973.ch1
Doyle, N., Jacobs, K., & Ryan, C. (2016). Faculty Mentors’ Perspectives on E-Mentoring Post-Professional Occupational Therapy Doctoral Students. Occupational Therapy International, 23, 305-317. https://doi.org/10.1002/oti.1431
Duffy, J., Wickersham-Fish, L., Rademaker, L., & Wetzler, E. (2019). Using Collaborative Autoethnography to Explore Online Doctoral Mentoring: Finding Empathy in Mentor/Protégé Relationships. American Journal of Qualitative Research, 2, 57-76. https://doi.org/10.29333/ajqr/5794
Erichsen, E. A., Bolliger, D. U., & Halupa, C. (2014). Students Satisfaction with Graduate Supervision in Doctoral Programs Delivered in Distance Education Settings. Studies in Higher Education, 39, 321-338. https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2012.709496
Fletcher, S. (2007). Mentoring Adult Learners: Realizing Possible Selves. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, 114, 75-86. https://doi.org/10.1002/ace.258
Fraenza, C., & Rye, T. (2021). Supporting the Social Integration of Online Doctoral Students through Peer Mentoring. Learning Assistance Review (TLAR), 26, 133-161.
Gaddis, S. M. (2012). What’s in a Relationship? An Examination of Social Capital, Race and Class in Mentoring Relationships. Social Forces, 90, 1237-1269. https://doi.org/10.1093/sf/sos003
Galbraith, M. W. (1991). The Adult Learning Transactional Process. In Facilitating Adult Learning: A Transactional Process (pp. 1-32). Krieger Publishing Company.
Gardner, S. K. (2008). Fitting the Mold of Graduate School: A Qualitative Study of Socialization in Doctoral Education. Innovative Higher Education, 33, 125-138. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10755-008-9068-x
Goerisch, D., Basiliere, J., Rosener, A., McKee, K., Hunt, J., & Parker, T. M. (2019). Mentoring with: Reimagining Mentoring across the University. Gender, Place & Culture, 26, 1740-1758. https://doi.org/10.1080/0966369X.2019.1668752
Grady, M. L. (2016). Doctoral Students in a Distance Program: Advising and Degree Completion Strategies. Journal of Academic Administration in Higher Education, 12, 49-52.
Green, T. D., Ammah, B. B., Butler-Byrd, N., Brandon, R., & McIntosh, A. (2017). African-American Mentoring Program (AAMP): Addressing the Cracks in the Graduate Education Pipeline. Mentoring & Tutoring: Partnership in Learning, 25, 528-547. https://doi.org/10.1080/13611267.2017.1415807
Hansman, C. (2009). Ethical Issues in Mentoring Adults in Higher Education. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, 2009, 53-63. https://doi.org/10.1002/ace.343
Heffron, J. M. (2020). Social Capital as Mentoring: A New Paradigm in Action. In B. J. Irby, J. N. Boswell, L. J. Searby, F. Kochan, R. Garza, & N. Abdelrahman (Eds.), The Wiley International Handbook of Mentoring: Paradigms, Practices, Programs, and Possibilities (pp. 29-43). Wiley Online Library. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119142973.ch3
Herman, L., & Mandell, A. (2005). From Teaching to Mentoring: Principles and Practice, Dialogue and Life in Adult Education. Routledge.
Hezlett, S. A., & Gibson, S. K. (2007). Linking Mentoring and Social Capital: Implications for Career and Organization Development. Advances in Developing Human Resources, 9, 384-411. https://doi.org/10.1177/1523422307304102
Hezlett, S., & Gibson, S. (2005). Mentoring and Human Resource Development: Where We Are and Where We Need to Go. Advances in Developed Human Resources, 7, 446-469. https://doi.org/10.1177/1523422305279667
Hobson, K., & Taylor, Z. W. (2020). Mentoring.ca: Types of Mentoring Programs Featured on Canadian Postsecondary Education Websites. International Journal of Mentoring and Coaching in Education, 9, 279-290. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJMCE-09-2019-0089
Hughes, C., Welsh, M., Mayer, A., Bolay, J., & Southard, K. (2009). An Innovative University-Based Mentoring Program: Affecting College Students’ Attitudes and Engagement. Michigan Journal of Community Service Learning, 16, 69-78.
Irby, B., Boswell, J., Searby, L., Kochan, F., Garza, R., & Abdelrahaman, N. (Eds.) (2020). The Wiley International Handbook of Mentoring: Paradigms, Practices, Programs, and Possibilities. Wiley Online Library. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119142973
Jacobs, K., Doyle, N., & Ryan, C. (2015). The Nature, Perception, and Impact of E-Mentoring on Post-Professional Occupational Therapy Doctoral Students. Occupational Therapy in Health Care, 29, 201-213. https://doi.org/10.3109/07380577.2015.1006752
Jones, H. A., Perrin, P. B., Heller, M. B., Hailu, S., & Barnett, C. (2018). Black Psychology Graduate Students’ Lives Matter: Using Informal Mentoring to Create an Inclusive Climate amidst National Race-Related Events. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 49, 75-82. https://doi.org/10.1037/pro0000169
Jones, J. (2013). Factors Influencing Mentees’ and Mentors’ Learning throughout Formalmentoring Relationships. Human Resource Development International, 16, 390-408.
Kay, F. M., & Wallace, J. E. (2009). Mentors as Social Capital: Gender, Mentors, and Career Rewards in Law Practice. Sociological Inquiry, 79, 418-452. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-682X.2009.00301.x
Keele, R., Buckner, K., & Bushnell, S. (1987). Formal Mentoring Programs Are No Panacea. Management Review, 76, 67.
Khan, R., & Gogos, A. (2013). Online Mentoring for Biotechnology Graduate Students: An Industry-Academia Partnership. Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks, 17, 89-107. https://doi.org/10.24059/olj.v17i1.294
Kulik, C. T., & Roberson, L. (2008). Diversity Initiative Effectiveness: What Organizations Can (and Cannot) Expect from Diversity Recruitment, Diversity Training, and Formal Mentoring Programs. In A. P. Brief (Ed.), Cambridge Companions to Management. Diversity at Work (p. 265-317). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511753725.010
Kumar, S., & Coe, C. (2017). Mentoring and Student Support in Online Doctoral Programs. American Journal of Distance Education, 31, 128-142. https://doi.org/10.1080/08923647.2017.1300464
Kumar, S., & Johnson, M. (2017). Mentoring Doctoral Students Online: Mentor Strategies and Challenges. Mentoring & Tutoring: Partnership in Learning, 25, 202-222. https://doi.org/10.1080/13611267.2017.1326693
Kumar, S., Johnson, M., & Hardemon, T. (2013). Dissertations at a Distance: Students’ Perceptions of Online Mentoring in a Doctoral Program. Journal of Distance Education, 27, 1-11.
Kutsyuruba, B., & Godden, L. (2019). The Role of Mentoring and Coaching as a Means of Supporting the Well-Being of Educators and Students. International Journal of Mentoring and Coaching in Education, 8, 229-234. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJMCE-12-2019-081
Lane, S. R. (2020). Addressing the Stressful First Year in College: Could Peer Mentoring Be a Critical Strategy? Journal of College Student Retention: Research, Theory & Practice, 22, 481-496. https://doi.org/10.1177/1521025118773319
Lee, J., & Cramond, B. (1999). The Positive Effects of Mentoring Economically Disadvantaged Students. Professional School Counseling, 2, 172-178.
Long, E. (2010). Mentoring Undergraduates: Professors Strategically Guiding the Next Generation of Professionals. Michigan Family Review, 14, 11-27. https://doi.org/10.3998/mfr.4919087.0014.104
Longwell-Grice, R., & Longwell-Grice, H. (2008). Testing Tinto: How Do Retention Theories Work for First-Generation, Working-Class Students? Journal of College Student Retention: Research, Theory & Practice, 9, 407-420. https://doi.org/10.2190/CS.9.4.a
Lorenzetti, D. L., Shipton, L., Nowell, L., Jacobsen, M., Lorenzetti, L., Clancy, T., & Paolucci, E. O. (2019). A Systematic Review of Graduate Student Peer Mentorship in Academia. Mentoring & Tutoring: Partnership in Learning, 27, 549-576. https://doi.org/10.1080/13611267.2019.1686694
Lunceford, B. (2011). When First-Generation Students Go to Graduate School. New Directions for Teaching and Learning, 2011, 13-20. https://doi.org/10.1002/tl.453
Lunsford, L. G., Crisp, G., Dolan, E. L., & Wuetherick, B. (2017). Chapter 20: Mentoring in Higher Education. In D. A. Clutterbuck (Eds.), The SAGE Handbook of Mentoring (pp. 316-334). SAGE Publications Ltd. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781526402011.n20
Mack, N. A., Cummings, R., Huff, E. W., Gosha, K., & Gilbert, J. E. (2019). Exploring the Needs and Preferences of Underrepresented Minority stUdents for an Intelligent Virtual Mentoring System. In C. Stephanidis, & M. Antona (Eds.), International Conference on Human-Computer Interaction (pp. 213-221). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-30712-7_28
Mason, M. M. (2012). Motivation, Satisfaction, and Innate Psychological Needs. International Journal of Doctoral Studies, 7, 259-277. https://doi.org/10.28945/1596
Mathews, P. (2006). The Role of Mentoring in Promoting Organizational Competitiveness. Competitiveness Review, 16, 158-169. https://doi.org/10.1108/10595420610760743
Means, B., Toyama, Y., Murphy, R., & Baki, M. (2013). The Effectiveness of Online and Blended Learning: A Meta-Analysis of the Empirical Literature. Teachers College Record, 115, 1-47. https://doi.org/10.1177/016146811311500307
Mullen, C. A. (2021). Online Doctoral Mentoring in a Pandemic: Help or Hindrance to Academic Progress on Dissertations? International Journal of Mentoring and Coaching in Education, 10, 139-157. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJMCE-06-2020-0029
Mullen, C. A., Fish, V. L., & Hutinger, J. L. (2010). Mentoring Doctoral Students through Scholastic Engagement: Adult Learning Principles in Action. Journal of Further and Higher Education, 34, 179-197. https://doi.org/10.1080/03098771003695452
Nora, A., & Crisp, G. (2007). Mentoring Students: Conceptualizing and Validating the Multi-Dimensions of a Support System. Journal of College Student Retention: Research, Theory & Practice, 9, 337-356. https://doi.org/10.2190/CS.9.3.e
Orpen, C. (1997). The Effects of Formal Mentoring on Employee Work Motivation, Organizational Commitment and Job Performance. The Learning Organization, 4, 53-60. https://doi.org/10.1108/09696479710160906
Pinto Zipp, G., Cahill, T., & Clark, M. (2009). The Role of Collaborative Scholarship in the Mentorship of Doctoral Students. Journal of College Teaching & Learning, 6, 29-36. https://doi.org/10.19030/tlc.v6i8.1111
Quaye, S. J., Griffin, K. A., & Museus, S. D. (2015). Engaging Students of Color. In S. J. Quaye, & S. R. Harper (Eds.), Student Engagement in Higher Education: Theoretical Perspectives and Practical Approaches for Diverse Populations (pp. 15-35). Routledge.
Rademaker, L. L., O’Connor Duffy, J., Wetzler, E., & Zaikina-Montgomery, H. (2016). Chair Perceptions of Trust between Mentor and Mentee in Online Doctoral Dissertation Mentoring. Online Learning, 20, 1-13. https://doi.org/10.24059/olj.v20i1.605
Ragins, B. R., & Cotton, J. L. (1999). Mentor Functions and Outcomes: A Comparison of Men and Women in Formal and Informal Mentoring Relationships. Journal of Applied Psychology, 84, 529-550. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.84.4.529
Ragins, B., Ragins, R. & Kram, K. E. (2007) The Handbook of Mentoring at Work: Theory, Research, and Practice. Sage Publications, Inc. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781412976619
Ritter, C., & Polnick, B. (2008). Connections: An Essential Element of Online Learning Communities. International Journal of Educational Leadership Preparation, 3.
Roumell, E. A. L., & Bolliger, D. U. (2017). Experience of Faculty with Doctoral Student Supervision in Programs Delivered via Distance. The Journal of Continuing Higher Education, 65, 82-93. https://doi.org/10.1080/07377363.2017.1320179
Shapiro, A. (2020). Constructivism and Mentoring. In B. J. Irby (Eds.), The Wiley International Handbook of Mentoring: Paradigms, Practices, Programs, and Possibilities (pp. 65-78). John Wiley & Sons, Inc. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119142973.ch5
Smith-Jentsch, K. A., Scielzo, S. A., Yarbrough, C. S., & Rosopa, P. J. (2008). A Comparison of Face-to-Face and Electronic Peer-Mentoring. Interactions with Mentor Gender. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 72, 193-206. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2007.11.004
Stadtlander, L. M., & Giles, M. J. (2010). Virtual Instruction: A Qualitative Research Laboratory Course. Teaching of Psychology, 37, 281-286. https://doi.org/10.1080/00986283.2010.510971
Terry, T., & Ghosh, R. (2015). Mentoring from Different Social Spheres: How Can Multiple Mentors Help in Doctoral Student Success in Ed.D. Programs? Mentoring & Tutoring: Partnership in Learning, 23, 187-212. https://doi.org/10.1080/13611267.2015.1072396
Tinoco-Giraldo, H., Torrecilla Sánchez, E. M., & García-Penalvo, F. J. (2020). E-Mentoring in Higher Education: A Structured Literature Review and Implications for Future Research. Sustainability, 12, Article 4344. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12114344
Weise, M. R. (2020). Long Life Learning: Preparing for Jobs That Don’t Even Exist Yet. John Wiley & Sons.
Xu, D., & Jaggars, S. S. (2013). Adaptability to Online Learning: Differences across Types of Students and Academic Subject Areas. CCRC Working Paper No. 54, Columbia University, Teachers College, Community College Research Center.
Yob, I., & Crawford, L. (2012). Conceptual Framework for Mentoring Doctoral Students. Higher Learning Research Communications, 2, 34-47. https://doi.org/10.18870/hlrc.v2i2.66
Yukselturk, E., & Yildirim, Z. (2008). Investigation of Interaction, Online Support, Course Structure and Flexibility as the Contributing Factors to Students’ Satisfaction in an Online Certificate Program. Journal of Educational Technology & Society, 11, 51-65.
Zhao, Y., Lei, J., Yan, B., Lai, C., & Tan, H. (2005). What Makes the Difference? A Practical Analysis of Research on the Effectiveness of Distance Education. Teachers College Record, 107, 1836-1884. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9620.2005.00544.x