Whole-Child Development Losses and Racial Inequalities during the Pandemic: Fallouts of School Closure with Remote Learning and Unprotective Community — Oak Academic Publishing
Research ArticleOpen AccessGoogle Scholar indexed
Whole-Child Development Losses and Racial Inequalities during the Pandemic: Fallouts of School Closure with Remote Learning and Unprotective Community
Department of Counseling, School and Educational Psychology, The State University of New York (University at Buffalo), Buffalo, USA
,
Department of Counseling, School and Educational Psychology, The State University of New York (University at Buffalo), Buffalo, USA
,
Department of Counseling, School and Educational Psychology, The State University of New York (University at Buffalo), Buffalo, USA
1 Department of Counseling, School and Educational Psychology, The State University of New York (University at Buffalo), Buffalo, USA
2 Department of Counseling, School and Educational Psychology, The State University of New York (University at Buffalo), Buffalo, USA
3 Department of Counseling, School and Educational Psychology, The State University of New York (University at Buffalo), Buffalo, USA
Grounded in a strength-based whole-child development model, this study explores the racial disparities of students’ learning and well-being during the pandemic. Linking the U.S. national/state databases of education and health, it examines changes in whole-child outcomes and related factors—remote learning and protective community. It reveals race/ethnicity-stratified, cross-state variations of learning and well-being losses during school closure and accountability turnover. Overall, students in the states with longer school closure and remote learning suffered bigger losses, whereas students in the states with better school funding and protective community had smaller losses. While all racial minority groups experienced relatively more remote learning and unprotective community, their consequences diverged: achievement gaps, relative to Whites, widened for Blacks and Hispanics, whereas well-being gaps widened for Asians. Despite common vulnerability, racial minority groups showed different signs of strength and resilience. Policy and research implications are discussed towards holistic and equitable post-pandemic recovery among all races/ethnicities. A silver lining during the pandemic was breaking the silos across state government agencies (education, health/mental health, social work, etc.) for whole-child support services. Without cross-sector partnership and safety nets, school closure and accountability turnover would have serious negative impacts on equity, exacerbating pre-existing racial inequalities and achievement/well-being gaps.
KeywordsRacial EquityWhole-Child EducationSchool AccountabilityRemote LearningProtective Community
Benson, P. L., Scales, P. C., & Syvertsen, A. K. (2011). The Contribution of the Developmental Assets Framework to Positive Youth Development Theory and Practice. A d vances in Child Development and Behavior , 41, 197-230. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-386492-5.00008-7
Betthäuser, B. A., Bach-Mortensen, A. M., & Engzell, P. (2023). A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of the Evidence on Learning during the COVID-19 Pandemic. Nature Human Behaviour, 7, 375-385. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-022-01506-4
Birch, D. A., & Videto, D. M. (2016). Promoting Health and Academic success: The Whole School, Whole Community, Whole Child Approach. Human Kinetics. https://doi.org/10.5040/9781492596936
Borman, G. D., & Overman, L. T. (2004). Academic Resilience in Mathematics among Poor and Minority Students. The Elementary School Journal , 104, 177-195. https://doi.org/10.1086/499748
Bradley, D., O’Neal, D., Makori, A., & Watson, C. (2024). Surviving in the Wake: Black Families’ Experiences during the COVID-19 Pandemic. 2024 American Educational Research Association (AERA).
Braun, H. I., Wang, A., Jenkins, F., & Weinbaum, E. (2006). The Black-White Achievement Gap: Do State Policies Matter? Education Policy Analysis Archives , 14 , 8. https://doi.org/10.14507/epaa.v14n8.2006
Calderon, V. J. (2020). U.S. Parents Say COVID-19 Harming Child’s Mental Health . https://news.gallup.com/poll/312605/parents-say-covid-harming-child-mental-health.aspx
California Department of Education (2024). Community Schools Partnership Program. https://www.cde.ca.gov/ci/gs/hs/ccspp.asp?ref=schoolceo.com
Cortes-Albornoz, M. C. et al. (2023). Effects of Remote Learning during COVID-19 Lockdown on Children’s Learning Abilities and School Performance: A Systematic Review. International Journal of Educational Development, 101 , Article ID: 102835. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedudev.2023.102835
De Witte, K., & Franҫois, M. (2023). COVID-19 Learning Deficits in Europe: Analysis and Practical Recommendations. European Commission.
Di Pietro, G. (2023). The Impact of Covid-19 on Student Achievement: Evidence from a Recent Meta-Analysis. Educational Research Review, 39, Article ID: 100530. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2023.100530
Dorn, E., Hancock, B., Sarakatsannis, J., & Viruleg, E. (2021). COVID-19 and Education: The Lingering Effects of Unfinished Learning. McKinsey & Company Research Report. https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/education/our-insights/covid-19-and-education-the-lingering-effects-of-unfinished-learning
Duckworth, A. L., Kautz, T., Defnet, A., Satlof-Besdrick, E., Talamas, S., Lira, B., & Steinberg, L. (2021). Students Attending Remotely Suffer Socially, Emotionally, and Academically. Educational Researcher , 50, 479-482. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X211031551
Duncan, G., & Murnane, R. (2011). Whither Opportunity? Rising Inequality, Schools, and Children’s Life Chances . Russell Foundation.
Goldhaber, D., Kane, T. J., McEachin, A., & Morton, E. (2022). A Comprehensive Picture of Achievement across the COVID-19 Pandemic Years: Examining Variation in Test Levels and Growth across Districts, Schools, Grades, and Students. Working Paper No. 266-0522. National Center for Analysis of Longitudinal Data in Education Research (CALDER).
Hamilton, L., & Gross, B. (2021). How Has the Pandemic Affected Students’ S o cial-Emo tional Well-Being? A Review of the Evidence to Date. Center on Reinventing Public Education.
Hammerstein, S., König, C., Dreisörner, T., & Frey, A. (2021). Effects of COVID-19-Related School Closures on Student Achievement—A Systematic Review. Frontiers in Psy cho l ogy, 12, Article 746289. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.746289
Hanno E. C., Fritz, L. S., Jones, S. M., & Lesaux, N. K. (2022). School Learning Format and Children’s Behavioral Health during the COVID-19 Pandemic. JAMA Pediatr ics , 176, 410-411. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapediatrics.2021.5698
How Kid s Are Performing: Tracking the School-Year Impact of COVID-19 on Reading and Mathematics Achievement. Special Report Series, Spring 2021 Edition. (2021). https://gate.lib.buffalo.edu/login?url= https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&AuthType=ip,uid&db=eric&AN=ED616758&site=ehost-live&scope=site
Jenssen, B. P., Kelly, M. K., Powell, M., Bouchelle, Z., Mayne, S. L., & Fiks, A. G. (2021). COVID-19 and Changes in Child Obesity. Pediatrics, 147 , e2021050123. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2021-050123
Karnia, J., & Kramer, M. (2011). Collective Impact. Stanford Social Innovation Review. https://ssir.org/articles/entry/collective_impact
Kentucky Department for Family Resource Centers and Volunteer Services (2024). Fam i ly Resource and Youth Services Centers. https://www.chfs.ky.gov/agencies/dfrcvs/dfrysc/Pages/default.aspx
Kirsch, I., & Braun, H. (2016). The Dynamics of Opportunity in America: Evidence and Perspectives. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-25991-8
Kuhfeld, M. et al. (2020a). Learning during COVID-19: Initial Findings on Student’s Reading and Math Achievement and Growth . https://www.nwea.org/content/uploads/2020/11/Collaborative-brief-Learningduring-COVID-19.NOV2020.pdf
Kuhfeld, M., Soland, J., Tarasawa, B., Johnson, A., Ruzek, E., & Liu, J. (2020b). Projecting the Potential Impact of COVID-19 School Closures on Academic Achievement. Educ a tional Researcher, 49, 549-565. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X20965918
Lee, J. (2016). The Anatomy of Achievement Gaps: Why and How American Education Is Losing (But Can Still Win) the War on Underachievement . Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780190217648.001.0001
Lee, J., Kim, N., Cobanoglu, A., & O’Connor, M. (2019). Moving to Educational A c countability System 2.0: Socioemotional Learning Standards and Protective Enviro n ments for Whole Children. Education Policy. https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&AuthType=ip,uid&db=eric&AN=ED605689&site=ehost-live&scope=site
Lee, J., & Su, M. (2022). Re-Envisioning American Education Reform: How and Why Whole Community Environment Matters for Whole Child Development. In J. Lee, & K. Wong, (Eds.), Centering Whole-Child Development in Global Education Reform: International Perspectives on Agendas for Educational Equity and Quality (pp. 178-197). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003202714-13
Lee, J., & Wong, K. K. (2004). The Impact of Accountability on Racial and Socioeconomic Equity: Considering Both School Resources and Achievement Outcomes. American Educational Research Journal , 41, 797-832. https://doi.org/10.3102/00028312041004797
Leeb, R. T. et al. (2020) Mental Health-Related Emergency Department Visits among Children Aged Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 69 , 1675-1680. https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/69/wr/mm6945a3.htm https://doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.mm6945a3
Lewallen, T. C., Hunt, H., Potts-Datema, W., Zaza, S., & Giles, W. (2015). The Whole School, Whole Community, Whole Child Model: A New Approach for Improving Educational Attainment and Healthy Development for Students. Journal of School Health, 85, 729-739. https://doi.org/10.1111/josh.12310
Lewis, K. et al. (2021). Learning during COVID-19: Reading and Math Achievement in the 2020-21 School Year. NWEA Research Brief. https://www.nwea.org/content/uploads/2021/07/Learning-during-COVID-19-Reading-and-math-achievement-in-the-2020-2021-school-year.research-brief-1.pdf
Maier, A., Daniel, J., Oakes, J., & Lam, L. (2017). Community Schools as an Effective School Improvement Strategy: A Review of the Evidence. Learning Policy Institute.
Margolius, M., Doyle Lynch, A., Pufall Jones, E., & Hynes, M. (2020). The State of Young People during COVID-19: Findings from a Nationally Representative Survey of High School Youth. America’s Promise Alliance.
McDaniels, A. (2018). Building Community Schools. The Center for American Progress Report. https://www.americanprogress.org/article/building-community-schools-systems/
Miler, C., & Parlapiano, A. (2023). The U.S. Built a European-Style Welfare State. It’s Largely Over. New York Times.
Murnane, R. J., & & Willett, J. B. (2010). Methods Matter: Improving Causal Inference in Educational and Social Science Research. Oxford University Press.
National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) (2022). Reading and Math Scores D e cline during COVID-19 Pandemic. https://www.nationsreportcard.gov/highlights/ltt/2022/#section-more-about
National Research Council (2012). Education for Life and Work. The National Academies Press.
National Research Council and Institute of Medicine (2009). Preventing Mental, Em o tional, and Behavioral Disorders among Young People: Progress and Possibilities. Co m mittee on the Prevention of Mental Disorders and Substance Abuse among Children, Youth, and Young Adults: Research Advances and Promising Interventions. The National Academies Press.
New York State Education Department (2024). Community Schools Resources. https://www.nysed.gov/student-support-services/community-schools-resources
OECD (2023). PISA 2022 Results (Volume I): The State of Learning and Equity in Educ a tion . OECD Publishing.
Office for Civil Rights (2021). Education in a Pandemic: The Disparate Impacts of COVID-19 on America’s Students . https://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ocr/docs/20210608-impacts-of-covid19.pdf
Olson, T., Hegbloom, C., & Egan, C. A. (2021). Whole School Approach: Connecting Schools to Community Resources to Enhance School Health. JOPERD: The Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance, 92, 5-12. https://doi.org/10.1080/07303084.2020.1866721
Palvia, S., Aeron, P., Gupta, P., Mahapatra, D., Parida, R., Rosner, R., & Sindhi, S. (2018). Online Education: Worldwide Status, Challenges, Trends, and Implications. Journal of Global Information Technology Management , 21, 233-241. https://doi.org/10.1080/1097198X.2018.1542262
Patrick, S. W. et al. (2020). Well-Being of Parents and Children during the COVID-19 Pandemic: A National Survey. Pediatrics , 146 , e2020016824. https://publications.aap.org/pediatrics/article/146/4/e2020016824/79686/Well-being-of-Parents-and-Children-During-the https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2020-016824
Pietrobelli, A., Fearnbach, N., Ferruzzi, A, Vrech, M., Heo, M., Faith, M., Heymsfield, S. B. et al. (2021). Effects of COVID-19 Lockdown on Lifestyle Behaviors in Children with Obesity: Longitudinal Study Update. Obesity Science & Practice , 8 , 525-528. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9358732/ https://doi.org/10.1002/osp4.581
Qayyum, A. (2018). Student Help-Seeking Attitudes and Behaviors in a Digital Era. I n ternational Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education , 15 , Article No. 17. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-018-0100-7
Rickles, J., Garet, M., Neima, S., & Hodgman, S. (2020). Approaches to Remote Instru c tion: How District Responses to the Pandemic Differed across Contexts . American Institute for Research. https://www.air.org/sites/default/files/COVID-Survey-Approaches-to-RemoteInstruction-FINAL-Oct-2020.pdf
Robert Wood Johnson Foundation (2020). Lockdowns, Remote Learning Contribute to Surge in Childhood Obesity. https://c-hit.org/2022/02/07/lockdowns-remote-learning-contribute-to-surge-in-childhood-obesity
Rosa, B. A. (2022). New York State Commissioner of Education’s Invited Speech at the University at Buffalo Graduate School of Education. https://ed.buffalo.edu/magazine/issues/spring-2022/bulletin-board.html
Schneider, J. et al. (2023). Educational Accountability 3.0. beyond Test Scores Project and National Education Policy Center. https://nepc.colorado.edu/publication/resource-document-beyond-essa
Singh, S. S., Polavarapu, M., Vallerand, K., & Moore, S. S. (2024). Impact of COVID-19 Pandemic on Health Behaviors and Outcomes by Age Group and Race Ethnicity: Results from Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System Data. American Journal of Health Promotion , 38, 355-363. https://doi.org/10.1177/08901171231199399
UNESCO (2022). COVID-19 Education Response Country Dashboard. https://covid19.uis.unesco.org/global-monitoring-school-closures-covid19/country-dashboard/
US Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics (2021). Monthly School Survey Dashboard . https://ies.ed.gov/schoolsurvey/mss-dashboard/
US Department of the Interior Bureau of Indian Education (n.d.). Comprehensive Guide to Emphasizing Social-Emotional Learning (SEL) Strategies during Remote Work and Study . https://www.bie.edu/topic-page/social-emotional-learning-sel-strategies-during-remote-work-and-study
Vegas, E. (2020). School Closures, Government Responses, and Learning Inequality around the World during COVID-19. Brookings Institution Report.
Verlenden, J. V. et al. (2021). Association of Children’s Mode of School Instruction with Child and Parent Experiences and Well-Being during the COVID-19 Pandemic— COVID Experiences Survey, United States, October 8-November 13, 2020. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 70 , 369-371. https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/70/wr/pdfs/mm7011a1-H.pdf https://doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.mm7011a1
Wiley, K., & Altman, M. (2024). COVID-19 and Education Impact Study: An Exacerb a tion of Education Inequity in Mississippi. 2024 American Educational Research Association (AERA).
World Bank (2018). The State of Social Safety Nets.