Landscapes are part of the earth’s surface, and include terrestrial, aquatic, natural, and anthropogenic features with differing dominance. The evaluation of Landscape Aesthetics (LA) and scenery is helpful for the understanding landscapes. The mapping of LA is increasingly being recognized in urban and landscape planning. Examining the flow and capacity of LA is an essential element in understanding the sustainability of urban landscapes. An explicit methodological approach was proposed for mapping LA using social media data (geolocated photographs) from Flickr to study the spatial distribution of LA in Xi’an, China. The LA flow and LA capacity were conceptually distinguished and assessed. The LA flow was analyzed with 10,278 geotagged photographs from Flickr to express people’s actual appreciation of LA. The LA capacity was examined by spatial criterion evaluation, combined the weight of landscape features. LA flow and LA capacity differ in both spatial extent and quantity, although there was a spatially explicit balance between them. The results show that LA flow largely occurs in the urban core zone and that LA capacity is concentrated in certain parts of Xi’an due to the imbalanced distribution of historical cultural heritage sites. This research contributes to a better understanding of LA values and the relationships between LA values and landscape characteristics. The results can support the integration of cultural services in landscape planning and land use policy.
KeywordsLandscape AestheticsMappingSocial Media DataSocial Value
Baró, F., Palomo, I., Zulian, G., Vizcaino, P., Haase, D., & Gómez-Baggethun, E. (2016). Mapping Ecosystem Service Capacity, Flow and Demand for Landscape and Urban Planning: A Case Study in the Barcelona Metropolitan Region. Land Use Policy, 57, 405-417. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2016.06.006
Belchera, R. N., Suen, E., Menz, S., & Schroepfer, T. (2019). Shared Landscapes Increase Condominium Unit Selling Price in a High-Density City. Landscape and Urban Planning, 192, Article ID: 103644. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2019.103644
Chen, Y., Parkins, J. R., & Sherren, K. (2018). Using Geo-Tagged Instagram Posts to Reveal Landscape Values around Current and Proposed Hydroelectric Dams and Their Reservoirs. Landscape and Urban Planning, 170, 283-292. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2017.07.004
Cui, Y., Meng, C., He, Q., & Gao, J. (2018a). Forecasting Current and Next Trip purpose with Social Media Data and Google Places. Transportation Research Part C, 97, 159-174. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trc.2018.10.017
Cui, Y., Xie, X., & Liu, Y. (2018b). Social Media and Mobility Landscape: Uncovering Spatial Patterns of Urban Human Mobility with Multi Source Data. Frontiers of Environmental Science & Engineering, 12, 7. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11783-018-1068-1
Dupras, J., Laurent-Lucchetti, J., Revéret, J.-P., & DaSilva, L. (2018). Using Contingent Valuation and Choice Experiment to Value the Impacts of Agri-Environmental Practices on Landscapes Aesthetics. Landscape Research, 43, 679-695. https://doi.org/10.1080/01426397.2017.1332172
Estruch-Guitart, V., & Vallés-Planells, M. (2015). The Role of Landscape Aesthetics in the Total Economic Value of Landscape: A Case Study of Albufera Natural Park. WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, 192, 219-230. https://doi.org/10.2495/ECO150201
Figueroa-Alfaro, R. W., & Tang, Z. (2017). Evaluating the Aesthetic Value of Cultural Ecosystem Services by Mapping Geo-Tagged Photographs from Social Media Data on Panoramio and Flickr. Journal of Environmental Planning and Management, 60, 266-281. https://doi.org/10.1080/09640568.2016.1151772
Frank, S., Fürst, C., Koschke, L., Witt, A., & Makeschin, F. (2013). Assessment of Landscape Aesthetics—Validation of a Landscape Metrics-Based Assessment by Visual Estimation of the Scenic Beauty. Ecological Indicators, 32, 222-231. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2013.03.026
Gavrilidis, A. A., Ciocanea, C. M., Nita, M. R., Onose, D. A., & Nastase, I. I. (2016). Urban Landscape Quality Index—Planning Tool for Evaluating Urban Landscapes and Improving the Quality of Life. Procedia Environmental Sciences, 32, 155-167. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proenv.2016.03.020
Ginzarly, M., Roders, A. P., & Tellera, J. (2019). Mapping Historic Urban Landscape Values through Social Media. Journal of Cultural Heritage, 36, 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.culher.2018.10.002
Gobster, P. H., Nassauer, J. I., Daniel, T. C., & Fry, G. (2007). The Shared Landscape: What Does Aesthetics Have to Do with Ecology? Landscape Ecology, 22, 959-972. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10980-007-9110-x
Haber, W. (2008). Biological Diversity a Concept Going Astray? GAIA-Ecological Perspectives for Science and Society, 17, 91-96. https://doi.org/10.14512/gaia.17.S1.4
Howley, P. (2011). Landscape Aesthetics: Assessing the General Publics’ Preferences towards Rural Landscapes. Ecological Economics, 72, 161-169. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2011.09.026
Jorgensen, A. (2011). Beyond the View: Future Direction in Landscape Aesthetics Research. Landscape and Urban Planning, 100, 353-355. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2011.02.023
Kerebel, A., Gélinas, N., Déry, S., Voigt, B., & Munson, A. (2019). Landscape Aesthetic Modelling Using Bayesian Networks: Conceptual Framework and Participatory Indicator Weighting. Landscape and Urban Planning, 185, 258-271. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2019.02.001
Kong, F., Yin, H., & Nakagoshi, N. (2007). Using GIS and Landscape Metrics in the Hedonic Price Modeling of the Amenity Value of Urban Green Space: A Case Study in Jinan City, China. Landscape Urban Planning, 79, 240-252. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2006.02.013
Langemeyer, J., Calcagni, F., & Baró, F. (2018). Mapping the Intangible: Using Geolocated Social Media Data to Examine Landscape Aesthetics. Land Use Policy, 77, 542-552. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2018.05.049
Lazdāne, L., Jankevica, M., & Zigmunde, D. (2013). Diversity of Landscape Aesthetics in Rural, Periurban and Urban Ecosystems. Mokslas-Lietuvos Ateitis/Science-Future of Lithuania, 5, 229-241. https://doi.org/10.3846/mla.2013.40
Lee, S.-H., & Son, Y.-H. (2018). Identifying Landscape Perceptions of Visitors’ to the Taean Coast National Park Using Social Media Data-Focused on Kkotji Beach, Sinduri Coastal Sand Dune, and Manlipo Beach. Journal of the Korean Institute of Landscape Architecture, 46, 10-21. https://doi.org/10.9715/KILA.2018.46.5.010
Liu, J., Wang, J., Wang, S., Wang, J., & Deng, G. (2018). Analysis and Simulation of the Spatiotemporal Evolution Pattern of Tourism Lands at the Natural World Heritage Site Jiuzhaigou, China. Habitat International, 79, 74-88. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.habitatint.2018.07.005
Nogué, J., & Vicente, J. (2004). Landscape and National Identity in Catalonia. Political Geography, 23, 113-132. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polgeo.2003.09.005
Noss, R. F. (1990). Indicators for Monitoring Biodiversity: A Hierarchical Approach. Conservation Biology, 4, 355-364. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1523-1739.1990.tb00309.x
Oteros-Rozas, E., Martín-López, B., Fagerholm, N., Bieling, C., & Plieninger, T. (2018). Using Social Media Photos to Explore the Relation between Cultural Ecosystem Services and Landscape Features across Five European Sites. Ecological Indicators, 94, 74-86. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2017.02.009
Pastur, G. M., Peri, P. L., Lencinas, M. V., García-Llorente, M., & Martìn-Lopez, B. (2016). Spatial Patterns of Cultural Ecosystem Services Provision in Southern Patagonia. Landscape Ecology, 31, 383-399. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10980-015-0254-9
Plieninger, T., Dijks, S., Oteros-Rozas, E., & Bieling, C. (2013). Assessing, Mapping and Quantifying Cultural Ecosystem Services at Community Level. Land Use Policy, 33, 118-129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2012.12.013
Poder, T., Dupras, J., Ndefo, F., & He, J. (2016). The Economic Value of the Greater Montreal Blue Network (Quebec, Canada): A Contingent Ranking Study to Estimate Non Market-Aquatic Ecosystem Services Benefits. PLoS ONE, 11, e0158901. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0158901
Richards, D. R., & Friess, D. A. (2015). A Rapid Indicator of Cultural Ecosystem Service Usage at a Fine Spatial Scale: Content Analysis of Social Media Photographs. Ecological Indicators, 53, 187-195. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2015.01.034
Saito, Y. (2007). Everyday Aesthetics. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199278350.001.0001
Sarukhán, J., & Whyte, A. (2005). Millennium Ecosystem Assessment. Ecosystems and Human Well-Being: Synthesis. Washington DC: Island Press.
Schirpke, U., Altzinger, A., Leitinger, G., & Tasser, E. (2019). Change from Agricultural to Touristic Use: Effects on the Aesthetic Value of Landscapes over the Last 150 Years. Landscape and Urban Planning, 187, 23-35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2019.03.004
Spyrou, E., & Mylonas, P. (2016). A Survey on Flickr Multimedia Research Challenges. Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence, 51, 71-91. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engappai.2016.01.006
Tenkanen, H., Minin, E. D., Heikinheimo, V., Hausmann, A., Herbst, M., Kajala, L., & Toivonen, T. (2017). Instagram, Flickr, or Twitter: Assessing the Usability of Social Media Data for Visitor Monitoring in Protected Areas. Scientific Reports, 7, Article No. 17615. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-18007-4
Tieskens, K. F., van Zanten, B. T., Schulp, C. J. E., & Verburg, P. H. (2018). Aesthetic Appreciation of the Cultural Landscape through Social Media: An Analysis of Revealed Preference in the Dutch River Landscape. Landscape and Urban Planning, 177, 128-137. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2018.05.002
van Riper, C. J., Kyle, G. T., Sutton, S. G., Barnes, M., & Sherrouse, B. C. (2012). Mapping Outdoor Recreationists’ Perceived Social Values for Ecosystem Services at Hinchinbrook Island National Park, Australia. Applied Geography, 35, 164-173. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeog.2012.06.008
van Zanten, B. T., van Berkel, D. B., Meetemeyer, R. K., Smith, J. W., Tieskens, K. F., & Vergurg, P. H. (2016). Continental Scale Quatification of Landscape Values Using Social Media Data. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 113, 1-7. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1614158113
van Zanten, B. T., Verburg, P. H., Koetse, M. J., & van Beukering, P. J. H. (2014). Preferences for European Agrarian Landscapes: A Meta-Analysis of Case Studies. Landscape and Urban Planning, 132, 89-101. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2014.08.012
Villamagna, A. M., Angermeier, P. L., & Bennett, E. M. (2013). Capacity, Pressure, Demand, and Flow: A Conceptual Framework for Analyzing Ecosystem Service Provision and Delivery. Ecological Complexity, 15, 114-121. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecocom.2013.07.004
Yoshimura, N., & Hiura, T. (2017). Demand and Supply of Cultural Ecosystem Services: Use of Geotagged Photos to Map the Aesthetic Value of Landscapes in Hokkaido. Ecosystem Services, 24, 68-78. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoser.2017.02.009
Zhang, H., Gao, Y., Hua, Y., Zhang, Y., & Liu, K. (2019). Assessing and Mapping Recreationists’ Perceived Social Values for Ecosystem Services in the Qinling Mountains, China. Ecosystem Services, 39, Article ID: 101006. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoser.2019.101006
Zhao, X., Lu, X., Liu, Y., Lin, J., & An, J. (2018). Tourist Movement Patterns Understanding from the Perspective of Travel Party Size Using Mobile Tracking Data: A Case Study of Xi’an, China. Tourism Management, 69, 368-383. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2018.06.026