Roadside litter is a growing problem in many countries around the world including the United States. More people, more vehicles, and more products are factors that have aggravated the problem over the years. Additionally, the global pandemic due to COVID-19 has drastically increased the amount of litter, particularly for certain types of products such as Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) and single-use packaging items. The detriment of roadside litter is not limited to aesthetic problems. From a general perspective, litter is associate d with social, economic, and environmental issues. Further, from a transportation standpoint, some types of roadside litter can interrupt the flow of traffic, cause delays, or even pose safety hazards to road users. This study conducts a review of the existing literature to depict a holistic perspective of the cause and extent of the problem in the U.S., as well as discuss es the current litter abatement strategies. This paper looks at the behavioral aspect of littering, the characteristics of litter, and different prevention and removal strategies.
KeywordsLitterRoadsideRoadTrashEnvironmental
Adopt-A-Highway (2020, June 16). About Us—Adopt a Highway Litter Removal Service of America. https://adoptahighway.net/about-us
Allen, S. (2011). Own the Road: A Brief History of the Adopt-a-Highway Program. https://www.mentalfloss.com/article/27018/own-road-brief-history-adopt-highway-program
Ballot Bin (2021, January 10). Keep Streets Butt-Free with the Ballot Bin. Ballot Bin. https://ballotbin.co.uk
Bareket, Z., Blower, D. F., & MacAdam, C. (2000, August 31). Blowout Resistant Tire Study for Commercial Highway Vehicles. UMTRI-2000-28. https://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/handle/2027.42/1309/94093.0001.001.pdf?sequence=2
Beck, R. W. (2007a, January). Georgia 2006 Visible Liter Survey: A Baseline Survey of Roadside Litter. Keep America Beautiful and Georgia Department of Community Affairs. http://cummingutilities.com/2006_Georgia_Litter_Report__Final_.pdf
Beck, R. W. (2007b). A Review of Litter Studies, Attitude Surveys and Other Litter-Related Literature.
Bitgood, S., Carnes, J., & Thompson, D. (1988). Control of Littering: A Comparison of Three Approaches. Visitor Behavior, 2, 7-8. https://www.informalscience.org/sites/default/files/VSA-a0a2j5-a_5730.pdf
Burns & McDonnell Engineering Company, Inc. (2020, January). Pennsylvania Litter Research Study. https://files.dep.state.pa.us/waste/Bureau%20of%20Waste%20Management/WasteMgtPortalFiles/Littering/Pennsylvania%20Litter%20Research%20Study%20Final%20Report%201.30.2020.pdf
Burns, J. C. (1981). Roughness and Roadway Safety (pp. 8-14). Transportation Research Record 836. http://onlinepubs.trb.org/Onlinepubs/trr/1981/836/836-002.pdf
Conroy-Ben, O., & Christensen, T. (June 2013). Reducing Highway Litter. Utah Department of Transportation. https://rosap.ntl.bts.gov/view/dot/26223
DSM Environmental, & MSW Consultants (2018). State of Delaware Baseline Statewide Visual Litter Study.
Environmental Resources Planning (2015, January 16). 2015 Anacostia Watershed Litter Survey: A Survey of Litter along 96 Roadway and Non-Roadway Sites within the Anacostia Watershed. Conducted in District of Columbia, Montgomery County, and Prince George’s County.
Finnie, W. C. (1973). Field Experiments in Litter Control. Environment and Behavior, 5, 123-144. https://doi.org/10.1177/001391657300500201
Forbes, G. J. (2009). Reducing Litter on Roadsides. In National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine (Vol. 394). The National Academies Press. https://www.nap.edu/cover/14250/450
Forbes, G. J. (2004). The Safety Impact of Vehicle-Related Road Debris. AAA Foundation for Traffic Safety.
GAO (2012, November). Highway Safety: Federal and State Efforts Related to Accidents That Involve Non-Commercial Vehicles Carrying Unsecured Loads. Report to Congressional Committees. https://www.gao.gov/products/gao-13-24
Gershman, Brickner & Bratton, Inc. (2005). @2004 New Jersey Litter.
Gregory, M. R. (2009). Environmental Implications of Plastic Debris in Marine Settings— Entanglement, Ingestion, Smothering, Hangers-On, Hitch-Hiking and Alien Invasions. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B, Biological Sciences, 364, 2013-2025. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2008.0265
IntuVision (2021, May 3). Intuitive Video Analytics. https://www.intuvisiontech.com
Kelling, G. L., & Coles, C. M. (1997). Fixing Broken Windows: Restoring Order and Reducing Crime in Our Communities. A Touchstone Book, Simon & Schuster.
Leistikow, B. N., Martin, D. C., & Milano, C. E. (2000). Fire Injuries, Disasters, and Costs from Cigarettes and Cigarette Lights: A Global Overview. Preventive Medicine, 31, 91-99. https://doi.org/10.1006/pmed.2000.0680
Morris, E. L. (2006). Effective Litter Reduction. Kutztown University of Pennsylvania.
Nelson, D. C. (2001). Roadside Litter Control: A Survey of Programs and Practice. Maryland State Highway Administration. http://www.roads.maryland.gov/opr_research/md-01-sp707b4i-roadside-litter-control_a-survey-of-programs-and-practice-report.pdf
Novotny, T. E., Lum, K., Smith, E., Wang, V., & Barnes, R. (2009). Cigarettes Butts and the Case for an Environmental Policy on Hazardous Cigarette Waste. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 6, 1691-1705. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph6051691
Pacific, N. (2019, April 25). Plastic in Everyday Life—Let’s Reduce the Use! Natura Pacific. https://www.natura-pacific.com/plastic-everyday-life-lets-reduce-use
Silva, A. L. P., Prata, J. C., Walker, T. R., Duarte, A. C., Ouyang, W., Barcelò, D., & Rocha-Santos, T. (2021). Increased Plastic Pollution Due to COVID-19 Pandemic: Challenges and Recommendations. Chemical Engineering Journal, 405, Article ID: 126683. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2020.126683
Prata, J. C., Silva, A. L. P., Walker, T. R., Duarte, A. C., & Rocha-Santos, T. (2020). Covid-19 Pandemic Repercussions on the Use and Management of Plastics. Environmental Science & Technology, 54, 7760-7765. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.0c02178
Rath, J. M., Rubenstein, R. A., Curry, L. E., Shank, S. E., & Cartwright, J. C. (2012). Cigarette Litter: Smokers’ Attitudes and Behaviors. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 9, 2189-2203. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph9062189
Responsive Management (2006). Georgia Residents’ Opinion on Litter and Anti-Littering Programs in Georgia. Georgia Governor’s Office and the State of Georgia’s Litter Abatement and Prevention Initiative. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/001391657300500201?casa_token=F-B_JH6jUi0AAAAA:k_wypsB5GOFJZ31oJCX0vdFo9OOXE9lbfZtGozb6oTk7-Hkv1WLndL80p5pzuUT-Tfh137Nzy-Sf
Ritchie, H., & Roser, M. (2018). Plastic Pollution. https://ourworldindata.org/plastic-pollution
Schultz, W. (2009). Littering Behavior in America Results of a National Study. Keep America Beautiful, Inc. https://kab.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/10/NewsInfo_Research_LitteringBehaviorinAmerica_2009Report_Final.pdf
Semuels, A. (2021, March 26). “Garbage Freaking Everywhere” as Americans Venture Outdoors after a Year of Lockdowns. Time. https://time.com/5949983/trash-pandemic/
Slaughter, E., Gersberg, R. M., Watanabe, K., Rudolph, J., Stransky, C., & Novotny, T. E. (2011). Toxicity of Cigarette Butts, and Their Chemical Components, to Marine and Freshwater Fish. Tobacco Control, 20, i25-i29. https://doi.org/10.1136/tc.2010.040170
Spacek, S. L. (2008, March 9). The (First) American State Litter Scorecard (2008): A Sociopolitical Inquiry into Littering and the Response Role of 50 American States. Texas State University. https://www.slideshare.net/stevewonder2/the-american-state-litter-scorecard-presentation
Spink, S. J. S. (2006). Serious Motorcycle Crashes in Michigan.
State of Delaware News (2019). Governor Carney Announces Expansion of DelDOT’s Work-a-Day Earn-a-Pay Program. State of Delaware News. https://news.delaware.gov/2019/07/18/governor-carney-announces-expansion-of-deldots-work-a-day-earn-a-pay-program
Stein, S. R. (2018). New Jersey 2018 Litter Survey. https://njclean.org/images/VLS/2018-NJ-Litter-Survey-Final-Report-July-24.pdf
Stein, S. R. (2009). 2008 National Visible Litter Survey and Litter Cost Research Study (No. 20878).
Stein, S. R., & Environmental Resources Planning (2010). Northeast 2010 Litter Survey.
Thiele, C. J., Hudson, M. D., Russell, A. E., Saluveer, M., & Sidaoui-Haddad, G. (2021). Microplastics in Fish and Fishmeal: An Emerging Environmental Challenge? Scientific Reports, 11, Article No. 2045. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-81499-8
Wallis, S. (2021, January 15). Fire Damage Rebuild of Mont Blanc Road Link. https://www.tunneltalk.com/Fire-safety-Jun01-Mont-Blanc-highway-fire-reconstruction.php
Zero Waste Scotland (2017). 7 of the Best Litter Prevention Campaigns from around the World. https://www.zerowastescotland.org.uk/litter-flytipping/top-campaigns
The Issues of Roadside Litter: A Review Paper — Oak Academic Publishing