The purpose of this research was to inform primary school nutritional policy by identifying which mid-morning snack would be more beneficial to consume from an appetite control perspective. During morning break 14 girls and 11 boys were provided with 160 ml of semi-skimmed milk or153 gof apple in a randomised crossover manner. Visual analogue scales were used to record hunger, prospective food consumption and fullness, immediately before and after breakfast, immediately before and after the mid-morning snack, and every 60 min until 21:00 on each day. School dinner/packed lunch energy intake s were assessed 90 min following the mid-morning snacks, in addition to evening energy intake. Children felt less hungry and could eat less when apple was consumed, however lunch and evening energy intake s were not different. Fluctuations in appetite did not translate into differences in energy intake therefore both milk and fruit should be promoted as mid-morning snacks in primary schools.
KeywordsPrimary School PolicyMid-Morning SnacksMilkFruitAppetiteEnergy Intake
C. J. Dodd, “Energy Regulation in Young People,” Journal of Sports Science and Medicine, Vol. 6, 2007, pp. 327-336.
A. R. Hughes, A. Sherriff, D. A. Lawlor, A. R. Ness and J. J. Reilly, “Incidence of Obesity during Childhood and Adolescence in a Large Contemporary Cohort,” Preventive Medicine, Vol. 25, 2011, pp. 300-304.
S. L. Gortmaker, L. W. Y. Cheung, K. E. Peterson, G. Chomitz, J. H. Cradle, H. Dart, M. K. Fox, R. B. Bullock, A. M. Sobol, G. Colditz, A. E. Field and N. Laird, “Impact of a School-Based Interdisciplinary Intervention on Diet and Physical Activity among Urban Primary School Children Eat Well and Keep Moving,” Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, Vol. 153, No. 9, 1999, pp. 975-983. doi:10.1001/archpedi.153.9.975
Department of Health, “School Fruit and Vegetable Scheme: Information for Parents,” 2004.
R. Craig, J. Mindell and V. Hirani, “Health Survey for England 2008. Physical Activity and Fitness: Summary of Key Findings,” The Health and Social Care Infromation Centre, 2009, pp. 1-21.
S. Abreu, R. Santos, C. Moreira, P. C. Santos, S. Vale, L. Soares-Miranda, J. Mota and P. Moreira, “Milk Intake Is Inversely Related to Body Mass Index and Body Fat in Girls,” European Journal of Pediatrics, Vol. 171, 2012, pp. 1467-1474.
L. L. Birch, L. S. McPhee, J. L. Bryant and S. L. Johnson, “Children’s Lunch Intake: Effects of Mid-Morning Snacks Varying in Energy Density and Fat Content,” Appetite, Vol. 20, No. 2, 1993, pp. 83-94. doi:10.1006/appe.1993.1011
L. L. Birch and M. Deysher, “Conditioned and Unconditioned Caloric Compensation: Evidence for Self-Regulation of Food Intake in Young Children,” Learning and Motivation, Vol. 16, 1985, pp. 341-355.
L. L. Birch and M. Deysher, “Caloric Compensation and Sensory Specific Satiety: Evidence for Self Regulation of Food Intake by Young Children,” Appetite, Vol. 7, No. 1986, pp. 323-331.
L. L. Birch, L. S. McPhee and S. Sullivan, “Children’s Food Intake Following Drinks Sweetened with Sucrose or Aspartame: Time Course Effects,” Physiology and Behavior, Vol. 45, 1989, pp. 387-395.
J. E. Cecil, C. N. Palmer, W. Wrieden, I. Murrie, C. Bolton-Smith, P. Watt, D. J. Wallis and M. M. Hetherington, “Energy Intakes of Children after Preloads: Adjustment, Not Compensation,” American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, Vol. 82, No. 2, 2005, pp. 302-308.
S. L. Johnson and L. A. Taylor-Holloway, “Non-Hispanic White and Hispanic Elementary School Children’s Self Regulation of Energy Intake,” American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, Vol. 83, No. 6, 2006, pp. 1276-1282.
E. H. Zandstra, M. F. Mathey, C. D. Graaf and W. A. V. Staveren, “Short-Term Regulation of Food Intake in Children, Young Adults and the Elderly,” European Journal of Clinical Nutrition, Vol. 54, No. 3, 2000, pp. 239-246. doi:10.1038/sj.ejcn.1600927
N. Bellissimo, S. G. Thomas, P. B. Pencharz, R. C. Goo de and G. H. Anderson, “Reproducibility of Short-Term Food Intake and Subjective Appetite Scores after a Glucose Preload, Ventilation Threshold, and Body Composition in Boys,” Applied Physiology, Nutrition, and Metabolism, Vol. 33, No. 2, 2008, pp. 326-337. doi:10.1139/H07-194
H. J. Leidy and E. M. Racki, “The Addition of a Protein Rich Breakfast and Its Effects on Acute Appetite Control and Food Intake in ‘Breakfast-Skipping’ Adolescents,” International Journal of Obesity, Vol. 34, No. 7, 2010, pp. 1125-1133. doi:10.1038/ijo.2010.3
J. F. Wilson, “Preschool Children Maintain Intake of Other Foods at a Meal including Sugared Chocolate Milk,” Appetite, Vol. 16, No. 1, 1991, pp. 61-67. doi:10.1016/0195-6663(91)90112-6
J. F. Wilson, “Preschoolers Mid-Afternoon Snack Intake Is Not Affected by Lunchtime Food Consumption,” Appetite, Vol. 33, No. 3, 1999, pp. 319-327. doi:10.1006/appe.1999.0266
J. F. Wilson, “Does Type of Milk Beverage Affect Lun chtime Eating Patterns and Food Choice by Preschool Children?” Appetite, Vol. 23, 1994, pp. 90-92.
A. Hagg, T. Jacobson, G. Nordlund and S. Rossner, “Effects of Milk or Water on Lunch Intake in Preschool Children,” Appetite, Vol. 31, No. 1, 1998, pp. 83-92. doi:10.1006/appe.1997.0152
J. Blundell, C. De Graaf, T. Hulshof, S. Jebb, B. Livingstone, A. Lluch, D. Mela, S. Salah, E. Schuring, H. Van Der Knaap and M. Westerterp, “Appetite Control: Methodological Aspects of the Evaluation of Foods,” Obesity Reviews, Vol. 11, No. 3, 2010, pp. 251-270. doi:10.1111/j.1467-789X.2010.00714.x
T. J. Cole, M. C. Bellizzi, K. M. Flegal and W. H. Dietz, “Establishing a Standard Definition for Child Overweight and Obesity Worldwide: International Survey,” British Journal of Nutrition, Vol. 320, 2000, pp. 1240-1246.
R. L. Mirwald, A. D. Baxter-Jones, D. A. Bailey and G. P. Beunen, “An Assessment of Maturity from Anthropometric Measurements,” Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, Vol. 34, No. 4, 2002, pp. 689-694. doi:10.1097/00005768-200204000-00020
T. van Strien and P. Oosterveld, “The Children’s DEBQ for Assessment of Restrained, Emotional, and External Eating in 7 to 12-Year-Old Children,” International Journal of Eating Disorders, Vol. 41, No. 1, 2008, pp. 72-81. doi:10.1002/eat.20424
N. Hanet, S. Salah and A. Lluch, “A training Session to Rate Appetite Feelings Increases the Robustness of Methodology,” Appetite, Vol. 55, No. 1, 2010, p. 168. doi:10.1016/j.appet.2010.05.064
A. M. Stephen, B. Teucher, B. J. Bates, L. J. Bluck, A. P. Mander and H. MacKenzie, “UK National Diet and Nutrition Survey: A Study to Decide the Dietary Assessment Method for the New Rolling Programme,” International Conference on Diet and Physical Activity Methods, 2009.
R. J. Stubbs, D. A. Hughes, A. M. Johnstone, S. Whybrow, G. W. Horgan, N. A. King and J. E. Blundell, “Rate and Extent of Compensatory Changes in Energy Intake and Expenditure in Response to Altered Exercise and Diet Composition in Humans,” American Journal of Physiology—Regulatory, Intergrative and Comparative Physiology, Vol. 286, 2004, pp. 350-358.
A. Flint, A. Raben, J. E. Blundell and A. Astrup, “Re producibility, Power and Validity of Visual Analogue Scales in Assessment of Appetite Sensations in Single Test Meal Studies,” International Journal of Obesity, Vol. 24, 2000, pp. 38-48.
R. P. Bolton, K. W. Heaton and L. F. Burroughs, “The Role of Dietary Fiber in Satiety, Glucose, and Insulin: Studies with Fruit and Fruit Juice,” American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, Vol. 34, 1981, pp. 211-217.
R. D. Mattes, “Soup and Satiety,” Physiology and Beha vior, Vol. 83, 2005, pp. 739-747.
J. E. Flood-Obbagy and B. J. Rolls, “The Effect of Fruit in Different Forms on Energy Intake and Satiety at a Meal,” Appetite, Vol. 52, No. 2, 2009, pp. 416-422. doi:10.1016/j.appet.2008.12.001
N. C. Howarth, E. Saltzman and S. B. Roberts, “Dietary Fibre and Weight Regulation,” Nutrition Reviews, Vol. 59, 2001, pp. 129-139.
J. E. Blundell, C. L. Lawton, J. R. Cotton and J. I. Mac diarmid, “Control of Human Appetite: Implications for the Intake of Dietary Fat,” Annual Review of Nutrition, Vol. 16, 1996, pp. 285-319.
N. Read, S. French and K. Cunningham, “The Role of the Gut in Regulating Food Intake in Man,” Nutrition Re views, Vol. 52, No. 1, 1994, pp. 1-10. doi:10.1111/j.1753-4887.1994.tb01347.x
J. G. C. Brand, R. H. Agan and M. Hain, “Chemical Senses in the Release of Gastric and Pancreatic Secretions,” Annual Review of Nutrition, Vol. 2, 1982, pp. 249-276.
R. D. Mattes, “Dietary Compensation by Humans for Supplemental Energy Provided as Ethanol or Carbohydrate in Fluids,” Physiology and Behavior, Vol. 59, No. , 1996, pp. 179-187.
E. Almiron-Roig, Y. Chen and A. Drewnowksi, “Liquid Calories and the Failure of Satiety: How Good Is the Evidence?” Obesity Reviews, Vol. 4, 2003, pp. 201-212.
E. Almiron-Roig, S. Y. Flores and A. Drewnowski, “No Difference in Satiety or in Subsequent Energy Intakes between a Beverage and a Solid Food,” Physiology and Behavior, Vol. 82, No. 4, 2004, pp. 671-677. doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2004.06.003
G. H. Anderson, S. Saravis, R. Schacher, S. Zlotkin and L. A. Leiter, “Aspartame: Effect on Lunch-Time Food Intake, Appetite and Hedonic Response in Children,” Appetite, Vol. 13, No. 2, 1989, pp. 93-103. doi:10.1016/0195-6663(89)90107-4