The Best Available Technology of Water/Wastewater Treatment and Seawater Desalination: Simulation of the Open Sky Seawater Distillation — Oak Academic Publishing
Research ArticleOpen AccessGoogle Scholar indexed
The Best Available Technology of Water/Wastewater Treatment and Seawater Desalination: Simulation of the Open Sky Seawater Distillation
Chemical Engineering Department, Saad Dahlab University of Blida, Blida, Algeria
1 Chemical Engineering Department, Saad Dahlab University of Blida, Blida, Algeria
This review suggests the concept of the best available technology of water/wastewater treatment and seawater desalination which is in fact a simulation of the seawater distillation at the open sky: coagulation in salty water aerated basin/ coagulation using seawater as coagulant solution with distillation using stored solar energy followed by waterfall on a natural mountain. This natural, green, and technico-economical technology is composed of three steps: the first one is coagulation which may be achieved : 1) in salty water aerated basin (air stripping, AS; dissolved air flotation, DAF) where the raw water is “ diluted ” in seawater ; or 2) in “ conventional ” coagulation using seawater as coagulant solution instead of alum/ferric salts. The first option seems to be more natural as it simulates river water dilution in seawater and the second one is more practical for “ rapid ” water consummation. For colloids and microorganisms’ removal, double- layer compression and charge neutralisation, as main coagulation and disinfection mechanisms, would be involved in the first and second options, respectively. Aerated basin (AS/DAF) reproduces the natural aeration to simulate healthy natural water basin. Using stored solar energy, distillation as the best liquid-solid/liquid-liquid separation process provides the removal of dissolved pollutants. For well balanced calco-carbonic equilibrium, the last step of this green treatment is the waterfall on a natural mountain providing useful gases, dissolved oxygen and carbon dioxide, and mineral salts to the water.
KeywordsAir Stripping (AS)SeawaterWater TreatmentCoagulationDissolved Air Flotation (DAF)Distillation
J. J. de Vries, “History of Groundwater Hydrology,” In: J. W. Delleur, Ed., The Handbook of Groundwater Engineering, Ch. 1, 2nd Edition, CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, Boca Raton, 2007.
I. R. Falconer, “Cyanobacterial Toxins of Drinking Water Supplies, Cylindrospermopsins and Microcystins,” CRC Press, Taylor & Francis e-Library, Boca Raton, 2005.
N. F. Gray, “Water Technology, an Introduction for Environmental Scientists and Engineers,” 2nd Edition, Elsevier Science & Technology Books, London, 2005.
J. A. Salvato Jr., “Environmental Health,” In: J. R. Pfafflin and E. N. Ziegler, Eds., Encyclopedia of Environmental Science and Engineering, 5th Edition, CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, Boca Raton, 2006, p. 334.
R. Fayer, “General Biology,” In: R. Fayer and L. Xiao, Eds., Cryptosporidium and Cryptosporidiosis, Ch. 1, 2nd Edition, CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, Boca Raton, 2008.
A. D. Russell and P. J. Ditchett, “Disinfection,” In: J. R. Pfafflin and E. N. Ziegler, Eds., Encyclopedia of Environmental Science and Engineering, 5th Edition, CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, Boca Raton, 2006, p. 224.
P. H. Jones and M. A. Tompeck, “Water Treatment,” In: J. R. Pfafflin and E. N. Ziegler, Encyclopedia of Environmental Science and Engineering, 5th Edtion, CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, Boca Raton, 2006, p. 1311.
P. D. Cohn, M. Cox and P. S. Berger, “Health and Aesthetic Aspects of Water Quality,” In: R. D. Letterman, Tech. Ed., Water Quality and Treatment, a Handbook of Community Water Supplies, Ch. 2, 5th Edition, McGraw-Hill, Inc., New York, 1999.
P. Baham and J. R. Pfafflin, “Effects of Chemicals,” In: J. R. Pfafflin and E. N. Ziegler, Eds., Encyclopedia of Environmental Science and Engineering, 5th Edition, CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, Boca Raton, 2006, p. 271.
D. Ghernaout, B. Ghernaout and A. Kellil, “NOM Removal and Enhanced Coagulation as a Link between Coagulation and Electrocoagulation,” Desalination and Water Treatment, Vol. 2, No. 1-3, 2009, pp. 203-222. doi:10.5004/dwt.2009.116
B. A. Dempsey, “Coagulant Characteristics and Reactions,” In: G. Newcombe and D. Dixon, Eds., Interface Science in Drinking Water Treatment, Theory and Applications, Ch. 2. In: A. Hubbard, Series Ed., Interface Science and Technology, Vol. 10, Academic Press, Elsevier, Amsterdam, 2006.
N. P. Cheremisinoff, “Handbook of Water and Wastewater Treatment Technologies,” Butterworth-Heinemann, A Member of the Reed Elsevier Group, Boston, 2002.
C. Tien, “Introduction to Cake Filtration, Analyses, Experiments and Applications,” Elsevier, Amsterdam, 2006.
K. Sutherland, “Filters and Filtration Handbook,” 5th Edtion, Butterworth-Heinemann, Elsevier, Oxford, 2008.
J. F. Richardson, J. H. Harker and J. R. Backhurst, “Coulson and Richardson’s Chemical Engineering,” In: R. K. Sinnott, Particle Technology and Separation Processes, Vol. 2, 5th Edition, Butterworth-Heinemann, an Imprint of Elsevier Science, Oxford, 2002.
D. A. Nield, “Modelling Fluid Flow in Saturated Porous Media and at Interfaces,” In: D. B. Ingham and I. Pop, Eds., Transport Phenomena in Porous Media II, Ch. 1, Pergamon, an Imprint of Elsevier Science, Amsterdam, 2002.
F. N. Kemmer (Ed.), “The NALCO Water Handbook,” 2nd Edtion, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, 1988.
P. J. Delphos and G. M. Wesner, “Mixing, Coagulation, and Flocculation,” In: E. E. Baruth, Tech. Ed., Water Treatment Plant Design, American Water Works Association, American Society of Civil Engineers, Ch. 6, 4th Edition, McGraw-Hill, Inc., New York, 2005.
D. Ghernaout, M. W. Naceur and A. Aouabed, “On the Dependence of Chlorine by-Products Generated Species Formation of the Electrode Material and Applied Charge during Electrochemical Water Treatment,” Desalination, Vol. 270, No. 1-3, 2011, pp. 9-22. doi:10.1016/j.desal.2011.01.010
F. R. Spellman, “Water Treatment Operations and Unit Processes,” In: F. R. Spellman, Handbook of Water and Wastewater Treatment Plant Operations, Ch. 17, CRC Press, Boca Raton, 2003.
J. De Zuane, “Handbook of Drinking Water Quality,” 2nd Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1997.
J. E. Dyksen, “Aeration and Air Stripping,” In: E. E. Baruth, Tech. Ed., Water Treatment Plant Design, American Water Works Association, American Society of Civil Engineers, Ch. 5, 4th Edition, McGraw-Hill, Inc., New York, 2005.
A. Anzalone, J. K. Bewtra and H. I. Ali, “Physical and Chemical Treatment of Wastewaters,” In: J. R. Pfafflin and E. N. Ziegler, Eds., Encyclopedia of Environmental Science and Engineering, 5th Edition, CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, Boca Raton, 2006, p. 972.
D. W. Hand, D. R. Hokanson and J. C. Crittenden, “Air Stripping and Aeration,” In: R. D. Letterman, Tech. Ed., Water Quality and Treatment, a Handbook of Community Water Supplies, American Water Works Association, Ch. 5, 5th Edition, McGraw-Hill, Inc., New York, 1999.
A. Stoddard, J. B. Harcum, J. T. Simpson, J. R. Pagen-kopf and R. K. Bastian, “Municipal Wastewater Treatment: Evaluating Improvements in National Water Quality,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 2002.
P. Chan, Y. Ding and J. R. Schuring Jr., “Groundwater Resources,” In: J. R. Pfafflin and E. N. Ziegler, Eds., Encyclopedia of Environmental Science and Engineering, 5th Edition, CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, Boca Raton, 2006, p. 439.
T. Asano, F. L. Burton, H. L. Leverenz, R. Tsuchihashi and G. Tchobanoglous, “Water Reuse: Issues, Technologies, and Applications,” Metcalf & Eddy, Inc., The Mc-Graw-Hill companies, New York, 2007.
H. F. Hemond and E. J. Fechner-Levy, “Chemical Fate and Transport in the Environment,” 2nd Edition, Academic Press, San Diego, 2008.
W. W. Eckenfelder Jr., “Industrial Water Pollution Control,” 3rd Edition, McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., New York, 2000.
G. Tchobanoglous, F. L. Burton and H. D. Stensel, “Wastewater Engineering, Treatment and Reuse,” 4th Edition, Metcalf & Eddy, Inc., McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., New York, 2003.
D. Ghernaout and M. W. Naceur, “Ferrate(VI): In Situ Generation and Water Treatment–A Review,” Desalination and Water Treatment, Vol. 30, No. 1-3, 2011, pp.319-332. doi:10.5004/dwt.2011.2217
A. Rushton, A. S. Ward and R. G. Holdich, “Solid-Liquid Filtration and Separation Technology,” VCH Verlagsgesellschaft Mbh, Weinheim, 1996.
R. D. Letterman, A. Amirtharajah and C. R. O’Melia, “Coagulation and Flocculation,” In: R. D. Letterman, Tech. Ed., Water Quality and Treatment, a Handbook of Community Water Supplies, American Water Works Association, Ch. 6, 5th Edition, McGraw-Hill, Inc., New York, 1999.
R. Beckett and J. Ranville, “Natural Organic Matter,” In: G. Newcombe and D. Dixon, Eds., Interface Science in Drinking Water Treatment, Theory and Applications, Ch. 17. In: A. Hubbard, Series Ed., Interface Science and Technology, Vol. 10, Academic Press, Elsevier, Amsterdam, 2006.
A. I. Schafer, “Natural Organics Removal Using Membranes, Principles, Performance and Cost,” Technomic Publishing Company, Inc., Lancaster, Pennsylvania, 2001.
J. E. Smith Jr., R. C. Renner, B. A. Hegg and J. H. Bender, “Upgrading Existing or Designing New Drinking Water Treatment Facilities,” Noyes Data Corporation, Park Ridge, 1991.
W. Lick, “Sediment and Contaminant Transport in Surface Waters,” CRC press, Taylor & Francis Group, Boca Raton, 2009.
J. G. Farmer and M. C. Graham, “Freshwaters,” In: R. M. Harrison, Ed., Understanding Our Environment, an Introduction to Environmental Chemistry and Pollution, Ch. 3, 3rd Edition, Royal Society of Chemistry, Cambridge, 1999.
H. L. Shorney, “Disinfection by-Product Precursor Removal by Enhanced Softening and Coagulation,” Ph.D. Thesis, University of Kansas, Lawrence, 1998.
G. Lagaly, “From Clay Mineral Crystals to Colloidal Clay Mineral Dispersions,” In: H. Stechemesser and B. Dobiá?, Eds., Coagulation and flocculation, Ch. 8, 2nd Edition, Taylor & Francis Group, Boca Raton, 2005.
B. A. Bolto, “Coagulation and Flocculation with Organic Polyelectrolytes,” In: G. Newcombe and D. Dixon, Eds., Interface Science in Drinking Water Treatment, Theory and Applications, Ch. 5. In: A. Hubbard, Series Ed., Interface Science and Technology, Vol. 10, Academic Press, Elsevier, Amsterdam, 2006.
M. R. Wiesner, M. M. Clark and J. Mallevialle, “Membrane Filtration of Coagulated Suspensions,” Journal of Environmental Engineering, Vol. 115, No. 1, 1989, pp. 20-40. doi:10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9372(1989)115:1(20)
K. O. Nowack and F. S. Cannon, “Ferric Chloride plus GAC for Removing TOC,” Proceedings of the AWWA Water Quality Technology Conference, Boston, 17-21 November 1996, pp. 65-78.
J. Gregory, “Floc Formation and Floc Structure,” In: G. Newcombe and D. Dixon, Eds., Interface science in drinking water treatment, theory and applications, Ch. 3. In: A. Hubbard, Series Ed., Interface Science and Technology, Vol. 10, Academic Press, Elsevier, Amsterdam, 2006.
J. F. Atkinson, R. K. Chakraborti and J. E. VanBenschoten, “Effects of Floc Size and Shape in Particle Aggregation,” In: I. G. Droppo, G. G. Leppard, S. N. Liss and T. G. Milligan, Eds., Flocculation in Natural and Engineered Environmental Systems, Ch. 5, CRC Press, Boca Raton, 2005.
J. L. Cleasby, A. H. Dharmarajah, G. L. Sindt and E. R. Baumann, “Design and Operations Guidelines for Optimization of the High-Rate Filtration Process: Plant Sur- vey Results,” Final Project Report, AWWA and AWWA Research Foundation, Denver, 1989.
N. K. Shammas, “Coagulation and Flocculation,” In: L. K. Wang, Y.-T. Hung and N. K. Shammas, Eds., Handbook of Environmental Engineering, Physicochemical Treat- ment Processes, Vol. 3, Ch. 4, The Humana Press Inc., Totowa, 2005.
F. Woodard, “Industrial Waste Treatment Handbook,” Butterworth–Heinemann, Boston, 2001.
C. N. Sawyer, P. L. McCarty and G. E. Parkin, “Chemistry for Environmental Engineering,” 4th Edition, Mc-Graw-Hill, New York, 1994.
T. D. Reynolds, “Unit Operations and Processes in Envi- ronmental Engineering,” Brooks/Cole Engineering Divi- sion, Monterey, 1982.
J. H. Masliyah and S. Bhattacharjee, “Electrokinetic and Colloid Transport Phenomena,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, 2006.
H. S. Weinberg, V. J. Pereira and Z. Ye, “Drugs in Drink- ing Water Treatment Options,” In: D. S. Aga, Ed., Fate of Pharmaceuticals in the Environment and in Water Treat- ment Systems, Ch. 10, CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, Boca Raton, 2008.
K. J. Wilkinson and A. Reinhardt, “Contrasting Roles of Natural Organic Matter on Colloidal Stabilization and Flocculation in Freshwaters,” In: I. G. Droppo, G. G. Leppard, S. N. Liss and T. G. Milligan, Flocculation in Natural and Engineered Environmental Systems, Ch. 7, CRC Press, Boca Raton, 2005.
D. J. Pernitsky, “Coagulation 101,” P:\OFFICE\Conferences\2003TechTrans\Dave P\DAVE_paper.doc (consulted 25/07/05).
D. Ghernaout and B. Ghernaout, “Sweep Flocculation as a Second Form of Charge Neutralisation—A Review,” Desalination and Water Treatment, Vol. 44, No. 1-3, 2012, pp. 15-28.doi:10.1080/19443994.2012.691699
E. J. W. Verwey and J. Th. G. Overbeek, “Theory of the Stability of Lyophobic Colloids,” Elsevier, Amsterdam, 1948.
C. R. O’Melia, “Fundamentals of Particle Stability,” In: G. Newcombe and D. Dixon, Eds., Interface Science in Drinking Water Treatment, Theory and Applications, Ch. 18. In: A. Hubbard, Series Ed., Interface Science and Technology, Vol. 10, Academic Press, Elsevier, Amsterdam, 2006.
D. J. Shaw, “Introduction to Colloid and Surface Chemistry,” 4th Edition, Butterworth-Heinemann, an Imprint of Elsevier Science, Oxford, 1992.
R. M. Pashley and M. E. Karaman, “Applied Colloid and Surface Chemistry,” John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., Chichester, 2004. doi:10.1002/0470014709
K. J. Ives, “Coagulation and Flocculation, Part II-Ortho-kinetic Flocculation,” In: L. Svarovsky, Ed., Solid-Liquid Separation, 4th Edition, Butterworth-Heine-mann, Oxford, 2000.
S. N. Liss, T. G. Milligan, I. G. Droppo and G. G. Leppard, “Methods for Analyzing Floc Properties,” In: I. G. Droppo, G. G. Leppard, S. N. Liss and T. G. Milligan, Eds., Flocculation in Natural and Engineered Environmental Systems, Ch. 1, CRC Press, Boca Raton, 2005.
T. Beveridge, “Large-Scale Centrifugation,” In: I. D. Wilson, E. R. Adlard, M. Cooke and C. F. Poole, Encyclopedia of Separation Science, Academic Press, London, 2000, pp. 320-342.
S. Takahide, “Kurita Handbook of Water Treatment,” 2nd Edition, Kurita Water Industries, Ltd., Tokyo, 1999.
J. Criddle, “A Review of the Mammalian and Aquatic Toxicity of Polyelectrolytes,” Report NR 2545, Foundation for Water Research, Medmenham, 1990.
M. F. Doherty, Z. T. Fidkowski, M. F. Malon and R. Taylor, “Distillation (Section 13), Perry’s Chemical Engineering Handbook,” 8th Edition, McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., New York, 2008.
Z. Lei, B. Chen and Z. Ding, “Special Distillation Processes,” Elsevier, Amsterdam, 2005.
R. K. Sinnott, “Separation Columns (Distillation, Absorption and Extraction),” In: R. K. Sinnott, Coulson and Richardson’s Chemical Engineering, Vol. 6, Ch. 11, 4th Edition, Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford, 2005.
H. T. El-Dessouky and H. M. Ettouney, “Fundamentals of Salt Water Desalination,” Elsevier, Amsterdam, 2002.
G. Towler and R. Sinnott, “Chemical Engineering Design, Principles, Practice and Economics of Plant and Process Design,” Elsevier Inc., Amsterdam, 2008.
F.-W. Mollenkamp, “Energy Sources—Alternatives,” In: J. R. Pfafflin and E. N. Ziegler, Eds., Encyclopedia of Environmental Science and Engineering, 5th Edition, CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, Boca Raton, 2006, p. 295.
H. Silla, “Chemical Process Engineering, Design and Economics,” Marcel Dekker, Inc., Taylor & Francis Group, New York, 2003.
P. S. Buckley, W. L. Luyben and J. P. Shunta, “Design of Distillation Column Control Systems,” Creative Services Inc., New York, 1985.
R. Smith, M. Jobson, “Distillation,” In: I. D. Wilson, E. R. Adlard, M. Cooke, C. F. Poole, Eds., Encyclopedia of Separation Science, Academic Press, London, 2000.
R. Smith, “Chemical Process Design,” McGraw-Hill, Inc., New York, 1995.
J. R. Fair, “Distillation,” In: L. F. Albright, Ed., Albright’s Chemical Engineering Handbook, Ch. 12, CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, Boca Raton, 2009.
D. Shekhawat and P. Srivastava, “Dissolved Air Flotation,” In: I. D. Wilson, E. R. Adlard, M. Cooke and C. F. Poole, Eds., Encyclopedia of Separation Science, Academic Press, London, 2000.
K. A. Matis and A. I. Zouboulis, “An Overview of the Process, In: K. A. Matis, Ed., Flotation Science and Engineering, Ch. 1, Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York, 1995.
J. K. Edzwald, “Dissolved Air Flotation in Drinking Water Treatment,” In: G. Newcombe and D. Dixon, Eds., Interface Science in Drinking Water Treatment, Theory and Applications, Ch. 5. In: A. Hubbard, Series Ed., Interface Science and Technology, Vol. 10, Academic Press, Elsevier, Amsterdam, 2006.
R. W. Crites, J. Middlebrooks and S. C. Reed, “Natural Wastewater Treatment Systems,” Taylor & Francis Group, Boca Raton, 2006.
J. R. Pfafflin, “Municipal Wastewater,” In: J. R. Pfafflin and E. N. Ziegler, Encyclopedia of Environmental Science and Engineering, 5th Edition, CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, Boca Raton, 2006, p. 727.
G. Bitton, “Wastewater Microbiology,” 3rd Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 2005.
V. Vinceviciene, “Wastewater Regulation,” In: P. Quevauviller, O. Thomas and A. van der Beken, Eds., Wastewater Quality Monitoring and Treatment, Ch. 1.1, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., Chichester, 2006.
R. E. Weiner and R. A. Matthews, “Environmental Engineering,” 4th Edition, Butterworth-Heinemann, Elsevier Science (USA), Amsterdam, 2003.
M. B. Hocking, “Handbook of Chemical Technology and Pollution Control,” 3rd Edition, Academic Press, an Imprint of Elsevier, Amsterdam, 2005.
A. R. Jantrania and M. A. Gross, “Advanced Onsite Wastewater Systems Technologies,” CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, Boca Raton, 2006.
E. Delyannis and V. Belessiotis, “Desalination,” In: J. R. Pfafflin and E. N. Ziegler, Eds., Encyclopedia of Environmental Science and Engineering, 5th Edition, CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, Boca Raton, 2006, p. 194.
L. Thomsen, “Organic Rich Aggregates in the Ocean: Formation, Transport Behavior, and Biochemical Composition,” In: I. G. Droppo, G. G. Leppard, S. N. Liss and T. G. Milligan, Eds., Flocculation in Natural and Engineered Environmental Systems, Ch. 11, CRC Press, Boca Raton, 2005.
B. A. Skopintsev, “Decomposition of Organic Matter of Plankton, Humification and Hydrolysis,” In: E. K. Duursma and R. Dawson, Eds., Marine Organic Chemistry, Evolution, Composition, Interactions and Chemistry of Organic Matter in Seawater, Ch. 6. In: Elsevier Oceanography Series, Vol. 31, Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company, Amsterdam, 1981, pp. 125-177.
E. Kreps, “Organic Catalysts or Enzymes in Sea Water,” In: A. E. Daniel, Ed., James Johnston Memorial, Liverpool University Press, Liverpool, 1934, pp. 193-202.
A. Krogh, “Conditions of Life at Great Depth in the Ocean,” Ecological Monographs, Vol. 4, No. 4, 1934, pp. 430-439.doi:10.2307/1961649
M. M. Kononova, “Organic Matter of Soil,” Izvestija. Akademija Nauk SSSR, Moscow, 1963.
M. G. Rutten, “The Origin of the Life by Natural Causes,” Elsevier, Amsterdam, 1971.
B. Ghernaout, D. Ghernaout and A. Saiba, “Algae and Cyanotoxins Removal by Coagulation/Flocculation: A Review,” Desalination and Water Treatment, Vol. 20, No. 1-3, 2010, pp. 133-143. doi:10.5004/dwt.2010.1202
D. Ghernaout and B. Ghernaout, “On the Concept of the Future Drinking Water Treatment Plant: Algae Harvesting from the Algal Biomass for Biodiesel Production––A Review,” Desalination and Water Treatment, Vol. 49, No. 1-3, 2012, pp. 1-18. doi:10.1080/19443994.2012.708191
S. Oden, “Die Huminsiiuren,” Kolloidchemische Beihefte, Vol. 11, No. 3-9, 1919, pp. 75-260. doi:10.1007/BF02557436
O. Aschan, “Om Wattenhumus Och Dess Medverkan Vid Sjomalms Bildingen,” Arch. Kemi, Mineral. Geol, Vol. 10A, 1932, pp. 1-143.
K. Kalle, “The Problem of the Gelbstoff in the Sea,” Oceanography and Marine Biology. An Annual Review, Vol. 4, 1966, pp. 91-104.
B. A. Birge and C. Juday, “Particulate and Dissolved Organic Matter in Inland Waters,” Ecological Monographs, Vol. 4, No. 4, 1934, pp. 440-474. doi:10.2307/1961650
S. A. Waksman, “Humus,” Bailliere, Tindall and Cox, London, 1936.
E. Odum, “The Essentials of Ecology,” Nauka, Moscow, 1975.
P. M. Williams, “The Distribution and Cycling of Organic Matter in the Ocean,” In: S. D. Faust and I. P. Hunter, Eds., Organic Compounds in Aquatic Environment, Marcel Dekker, New York, 1971, pp. 145-163,.
P. J. le B. Williams, “Biological and Chemical Aspects of Dissolved Organic Material in Sea Water,” In: J. P. Riley and G. Skirrow, Eds., Chemical Pceanography, Vol. 2, 2nd Edition, Academic Press, London, 1975, pp. 301-363.
B. A. Skopintsev, “Recent Progress in Study of Organic Matter in Ocean Water,” Okeanologiya, Vol. 11, 1971, pp. 939-956.
R. A. Duce and E. K. Duursma, “Inputs of Organic Matter to the Ocean,” Marine Chemistry, Vol. 5, No. 4-6, 1977, pp. 319-339. doi:10.1016/0304-4203(77)90027-5
E. R. Sholkovitz, “Flocculation of Dissolved Organic and Inorganic Matter during the Mixing of River Water and Sea Water,” Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, Vol. 40, No. 7, 1976, pp. 831-845. doi:10.1016/0016-7037(76)90035-1
E. R. Sholkovitz, E. A. Boyle and N. B. Price, “The Removal of Dissolved Humic Acids and Iron during Estuarine Mixing,” Earth and Planetary Science Letters, Vol. 40, No. 1, 1978, pp. 130-136. doi:10.1016/0012-821X(78)90082-1
O. K. Bordovsky, “Organic Matter of Sea and Ocean Sediments in the Stage of Early Diagenesis,” Nauka, Moscow, 1974.
A. Nissenbaum and J. Kaplan, “Chemical and Isotopic Evidence of in Situ Origin of Marine Humic Substances,” Limnology and Oceanography, Vol. 17, No. 4, 1972, pp. 570-582. doi:10.4319/lo.1972.17.4.0570
G. Newcombe and D. Dixon, “Preface,” In: G. Newcombe and D. Dixon, Eds., Interface Science in Drinking Water Treatment, Theory and Applications, In: A. Hubbard, Series Ed., Interface Science and Technology, Vol. 10, Academic Press, Elsevier, Amsterdam, 2006.
G. Newcombe and D. Dixon, “Introduction,” In: G. Newcombe and D. Dixon, Eds., Interface Science in Drinking Water Treatment, Theory and Applications, Ch. 1. In: A. Hubbard, Series Ed., Interface Science and Technology, Vol. 10, Academic Press, Elsevier, Amsterdam, 2006.
E. R. Alley, “Water Quality Control Handbook,” 2nd Edition, McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., New York, 2007.
J. T. O’Connor, T. O’Connor and R. Twait, “Water Treatment Plant Performance Evaluations and Operations,” John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 2009. doi:10.1002/9780470431474
W. Stumm, M. Forsberg and S. Gherini, “Water Chemistry,” In: J. R. Pfafflin and E.N. Ziegler, Eds., Encyclopedia of Environmental Science and Engineering, 5th Edition, CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, Boca Raton, 2006, p. 1256.
A. Becaria, D. K. Lahiri, S. C. Bondy, D. Chen, A. Hamadeh, H. Li, R. Taylor and A. Campbell, “Aluminum and Copper in Drinking Water Enhance Inflammatory or Oxidative Events Specifically in the Brain,” Journal of Neuroimmunology, Vol. 176, No. 1, 2006, pp. 16-23. doi:10.1016/j.jneuroim.2006.03.025
J. R. Walton, “A Longitudinal Study of Rats Chronically Exposed to Aluminium at Human Dietary Levels,” Neuroscience Letters, Vol. 412, No. 1, 2007, pp. 29-33. doi:10.1016/j.neulet.2006.08.093
C. Gourier-Fréry and N. Fréry, Aluminium, EMC-Toxicologie-Pathologie, Vol. 1, No. 3, 2004, pp. 79-95. doi:10.1016/j.emctp.2004.04.002
T. P. Flaten, “Aluminium as a Risk Factor in Alzheimer’s Disease, with Emphasis on Drinking Water,” Brain Research Bulletin, Vol. 55, No. 2, 2001, pp. 187-196. doi:10.1016/S0361-9230(01)00459-2
L. Lévesque, C. A. Mizzen, D. R. McLachlan and P. E. Fraser, “Ligand Specific Effects on Aluminum Incorporation and Toxicity in Neurons and Astrocytes,” Brain Research, Vol. 877, No. 2, 2000, pp. 191-202. doi:10.1016/S0006-8993(00)02637-8
E. Gauthier, I. Fortier, F. Courchesne, P. Pepin, J. Mortimer and D. Gauvreau, “Aluminum Forms in Drinking Water and Risk of Alzheimer’s Disease,” Environmental Research, Vol. 84, No. 3, 2000, pp. 234-246. doi:10.1006/enrs.2000.4101
M.-L. Cheng, H.-Y. Ho, D. T.-Y. Chiu, F.-J. Lu, “HA-Mediated Oxidative Damages to Human Erythrocytes: A Possible Mechanism Leading to Anemia in Blackfoot Disease,” Free Radical Biology Medicine, Vol. 27, No. 3-4, 1999, pp. 470-477. doi:10.1016/S0891-5849(99)00072-6
C.-H. Tseng, “Blackfoot Disease and Arsenic: A Never-Ending Story,” Journal of Environmental Science and Health, Vol. 23, 2005, pp. 55-74.
R.-J. Gau, H.-L. Yang, J.-L. Suen and F.-J. Lu, “Induction of Oxidative Stress by HA through Increasing Intracellular Iron: A Possible Mechanism Leading to Atherothrombotic Vascular Disorder in Blackfoot Disease,” Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications, Vol. 283, No. 4, 2001, pp.743-749. doi:10.1006/bbrc.2001.4832
Y.-C. Hseu, H.-W. Huang, S.-Y. Wang, H.-Y. Chen, F.-J. Lu, R.-J. Gau and H.-L. Yang, “HA Induces Apoptosis in Human Endothelial Cells,” Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology, Vol. 182, No. 1, 2002, pp. 34-43. doi:10.1006/taap.2002.9429
J. E. Van Benschoten and J. K. Edzwald, “Chemical Aspects of Coagulation Using Aluminium Salts-II. Coagulation of Fulvic Acid Using Alum and Polyaluminum Chloride,” Water Research, Vol. 24, No. 12, 1990, pp. 1527-1535.doi:10.1016/0043-1354(90)90087-M
J. H. Clark, “Introduction,” In: J. Clark and D. Macquarrie, Eds., Handbook of Green Chemistry and Technology, Ch. 1, Blackwell Science Ltd, Oxford, 2002.
D. Ghernaout, B. Ghernaout and M. W. Naceur, Embodying the Chemical Water Treatment in the Green Chemistry—A Review,” Desalination, Vol. 271, No. 1-3, 2011, pp. 1-10.doi:10.1016/j.desal.2011.01.032
G. A. Jackson, “Coagulation Theory and Models of Oceanic Plankton Aggregation,” In: I. G. Droppo, G. G. Leppard, S. N. Liss and T. G. Milligan, Eds., Flocculation in Natural and Engineered Environmental Systems, Ch. 13, CRC Press, Boca Raton, 2005.
E. Brown, A. Colling, D. Park, J. Phillips, D. Rothery and J. Wright, “Seawater: Its Composition, Properties and Behaviour,” 2nd Edition, Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford, 2004.
K. S. Venkateswarlu, “Water Chemistry, Industrial and Power Station Water Treatment,” New Age International (P), Ltd., New Delhi, 1996