During the last two decades, and particularly during the last few years, the environmental sector has shown a largely growing interest in the treatment of different types of water and wastewater by electrocoagulation (EC). The aim of this work was to review studies, conducted mainly during 2008 - 2011, on the wide and versatile range of feasible EC applications employed in the purification of different types of water and wastewater. The EC applications discussed here were divided into 7 following categories: tannery, textile and colored wastewater; pulp and paper industry wastewater; oily wastewater; food industry wastewater; other types of industrial wastewater; surface water as well as model water and wastewater containing heavy metals, nutrients, cyanide and other elements and ions. In addition, this paper presents an overview of the optimum process conditions (treatment times, current densities, and initial pH) and removal efficiencies (mostly high) achieved for the EC applications discussed. In the vast majority of the studies discussed in this review, the aforementioned values were found to be in the range of 5 - 60 min (typically less than 30 min), 10 - 150 A /m 2 and near neutral pH, respectively. Both operating costs and electrical energy consumption values were found to vary greatly depending on the type of solution being treated, being between 0.004 - 6.74 €/m 3 and 0.002 - 58.0 kWh/m 3 , but in general they were rather low (typically around 0.1 - 1.0 €/m 3 and 0.4 - 4.0 kWh/m 3 ).
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C. Wang, W. Chou, L. Chen and S. Chang, “Silica Particles Settling Characteristics and Removal Performances of Oxide Chemical Mechanical Polishing Wastewater Treated by Electrocoagulation Technology,” Journal of Hazardous Materials, Vol. 161, No. 1, 2009, pp. 344-350. doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2008.03.099
C.-T. Wang and W.-L. Chou, “Performance of COD Removal from Oxide Chemical Mechanical Polishing Wastewater Using Iron Electrocoagulation,” Journal of Environmental Science and Health—Part A Toxic/Hazardous Substances and Environmental Engineering, Vol. 44, No. 12, 2009, pp. 1289-1297. doi:10.1080/10934520903140090
M. Panizza and G. Cerisola, “Applicability of Electrochemical Methods to Carwash Wastewaters for Reuse. Part 2: Electrocoagulation and Anodic Oxidation Integrated Process,” Journal of Electroanalytical Chemistry, Vol. 638, No. 2, 2010, pp. 236-240. doi:10.1016/j.jelechem.2009.11.003
M. Kumar, F. I. A. Ponselvan, J. R. Malviya, V. C. Srivastava and I. D. Mall, “Treatment of Bio-Digester Effluent by Electrocoagulation Using Iron Electrodes,” Journal of Hazardous Materials, Vol. 165, No. 1-3, 2009, pp. 345-352. doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2008.10.041
D. Ryan, A. Gadd, J. Kavanagh, M. Zhou and G. Barton, “A Comparison of Coagulant Dosing Options for the Remediation of Molasses Process Water,” Separation and Purification Technology, Vol. 58, No. 3, 2008, pp. 347-352. doi:10.1016/j.seppur.2007.05.010
L. Zhang, G. Xue, N. Zhang, S. Liu, A. Duan and L. Wang, “Decolorization Study of Coking Wastewater by Continuous Electrocoagulation Process,” ICMREE2011—Proedings 2011 International Conference on Materials for Renewable Energy and Environment, Shanghai, May 2011, pp. 860-863.
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F. Janpoor, A. Torabian and V. Khatibikamal, “Treatment of Laundry Waste-Water by Electrocoagulation,” Journal of Chemical Technology and Biotechnology, Vol. 86, No. 8, 2011, pp. 1113-1120. doi:10.1002/jctb.2625
C. Wang, W. Chou and Y. Kuo, “Removal of COD from Laundry Wastewater by Electrocoagulation/Electroflotation,” Journal of Hazardous Materials, Vol. 164, No. 1, 2009, pp. 81-86. doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2008.07.122
A. Akyol, “Treatment of Paint Manufacturing Wastewater by Electrocoagulation,” Desalination, Vol. 285, 2012, pp. 91-99. doi:10.1016/j.desal.2011.09.039
M. Solak, M. Klhc, Y. Hüseyin and A. Sencan, “Removal of Suspended Solids and Turbidity from Marble Processing Wastewaters by Electrocoagulation: Comparison of Electrode Materials and Electrode Connection Systems,” Journal of Hazardous Materials, Vol. 172, No. 1, 2009, pp. 345-352. doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2009.07.018
W. Chou, C. Wang and K. Huang, “Investigation of Process Parameters for the Removal of Polyvinyl Alcohol from Aqueous Solution by Iron Electrocoagulation,” Desalination, Vol. 251, No. 1-3, 2010, pp. 12-19. doi:10.1016/j.desal.2009.10.008
W. Chou, C. Wang, K. Huang and T. Liu, “Electrochemical Removal of Salicylic Acid from Aqueous Solutions Using Aluminum Electrodes,” Desalination, Vol. 271, No. 1-3, 2011, pp. 55-61. doi:10.1016/j.desal.2010.12.013
M. Malakootian, H. J. Mansoorian and M. Moosazadeh, “Performance Evaluation of Electrocoagulation Process Using Iron-Rod Electrodes for Removing Hardness from Drinking Water,” Desalination, Vol. 255, No. 1-3, 2010, pp. 67-71. doi:10.1016/j.desal.2010.01.015
A. A. Bukhari, “Investigation of the Electro-Coagulation Treatment Process for the Removal of Total Suspended Solids and Turbidity from Municipal Wastewater,” Bioresource Technology, Vol. 99, No. 5, 2008, pp. 914-921. doi:10.1016/j.biortech.2007.03.015
M. A. Rodrigo, P. Canizares, C. Buitrón and C. Sáez, “Electrochemical Technologies for the Regeneration of Urban Wastewaters,” Electrochimica Acta, Vol. 55, No. 27 2010, pp. 8160-8164. doi:10.1016/j.electacta.2010.01.053
K. Sadeddin, A. Naser and A. Firas, “Removal of Turbidity and Suspended Solids by Electro-Coagulation to Improve Feed Water Quality of Reverse Osmosis Plant,” Desalination, Vol. 268, No. 1-3, 2011, pp. 204-207. doi:10.1016/j.desal.2010.10.027
M. G. Klhc, C. Hosten and S. Demirci, “A Parametric Comparative Study of Electrocoagulation and Coagulation Using Ultrafine Quartz Suspensions,” Journal of Hazardous Materials, Vol. 171, No. 1-3, 2009, pp. 247-252. doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2009.05.133
D. Ghernaout, B. Ghernaout and A. Boucherit, “Effect of pH on Electrocoagulation of Bentonite Suspensions in Batch Using Iron Electrodes,” Journal of Dispersion Science and Technology, Vol. 29, No. 9, 2008, pp. 1272- 1275. doi:10.1080/01932690701857483
S. Gao, J. Yang, J. Tian, F. Ma, G. Tu and M. Du, “Electro-Coagulation-Flotation Process for Algae Removal,” Journal of Hazardous Materials, Vol. 177, No. 1-3, 2010, pp. 336-343. doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2009.12.037
D. Ghernaout, A. Badis, A. Kellil and B. Ghernaout, “Application of Electrocoagulation in Escherichia coli Culture and Two Surface Waters,” Desalination, Vol. 219, No. 1-3, 2008, pp. 118-125. doi:10.1016/j.desal.2007.05.010
C. Ricordel, A. Darchen and D. Hadjiev, “Electrocoagulation-Electroflotation as a Surface Water Treatment for Industrial Uses,” Separation and Purification Technology, Vol. 74, No. 3, 2010, pp. 342-347. doi:10.1016/j.seppur.2010.06.024
D. Ghernaout, B. Ghernaout, A. Saiba, A. Boucherit and A. Kellil, “Removal of Humic Acids by Continuous Electromagnetic Treatment Followed by Electrocoagulation in Batch Using Aluminium Electrodes,” Desalination, Vol. 239, No. 1-3, 2009, pp. 295-308. doi:10.1016/j.desal.2008.04.001
M. Vepsalainen, M. Ghiasvand, J. Selin, J. Pienimaa, E. Repo, M. Pulliainen and M. Sillanpaa, “Investigations of the Effects of Temperature and Initial Sample pH on Natural Organic Matter (NOM) Removal with Electro- coagulation Using Response Surface Method (RSM),” Separation and Purification Technology, Vol. 69, No. 3, 2009, pp. 255-261. doi:10.1016/j.seppur.2009.08.001
X. Li, Q. Feng, Q. Meng and Y. Ceng, “Electrocoagulation for the Drinking Water Treatment of Polluted Surface Water Supplies,” 2nd International Conference on Bioinformatics and Biomedical Engineering, iCBBE 2008, Shanghai, May 2008, pp. 3091-3094.
N. Uduman, V. Bourniquel and M. K. Danquah and A. F. A. Hoadley, “A Parametric Study of Electrocoagulation as a Recovery Process of Marine Microalgae for Biodiesel Production,” Chemical Engineering Journal, Vol. 174, No. 1, 2011, pp. 249-257. doi:10.1016/j.cej.2011.09.012
D. Vandamme, S. C. V. Pontes, K. Goiris, I. Foubert, L. J. J. Pinoy and K. Muylaert, “Evaluation of Electro-Coagulation-Flocculation for Harvesting Marine and Freshwater Microalgae,” Biotechnology and Bioengineering, Vol. 108, No. 10, 2011, pp. 2320-2329. doi:10.1002/bit.23199
O. Yahiaoui, L. Aizel, H. Lounici, N. Drouiche, M. F. A. Goosen, A. Pauss and N. Mameri, “Evaluating Removal of Metribuzin Pesticide from Contaminated Groundwater Using an Electrochemical Reactor Combined with Ultraviolet Oxidation,” Desalination, Vol. 270, No. 1-3, 2011, pp. 84-89. doi:10.1016/j.desal.2010.11.025
A. E. Yilmaz, R. Boncukcuoglu, M. M. Kocakerim, M. T. Yilmaz and C. Paluluoglu, “Boron Removal from Geothermal Waters by Electrocoagulation,” Journal of Hazardous Materials, Vol. 153, No. 1-2, 2008, pp. 146-151. doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2007.08.030
C. P. Nanseu-Njiki, S. R. Tchamango, P. C. Ngom, A. Darchen and E. Ngameni, “Mercury(II) Removal from Water by Electrocoagulation Using Aluminium and Iron Electrodes,” Journal of Hazardous Materials, Vol. 168, No. 2-3, 2009, pp. 1430-1436. doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2009.03.042
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S. Vasudevan, J. Lakshmi and G. Sozhan, “Studies on the Removal of Iron from Drinking Water by Electrocoagulation—A Clean Process,” Clean—Soil, Air, Water, Vol. 37, No. 1, 2009, pp. 45-51. doi:10.1002/clen.200800175
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S. Vasudevan, J. Lakshmi and G. Sozhan, “Effects of Alternating and Direct Current in Electrocoagulation Process on the Removal of Cadmium from Water,” Journal of Hazardous Materials, Vol. 192, No. 1, 2011, pp. 26-34.
E. Keshmirizadeh, S. Yousefi and M. K. Rofouei, “An Investigation on the New Operational Parameter Effective in Cr(VI) Removal Efficiency: A Study on Electrocoagulation by Alternating Pulse Current,” Journal of Hazardous Materials, Vol. 190, No. 1-3, 2011, pp. 119-124. doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2011.03.010
M. S. Bhatti, D. Kapoor, R. K. Kalia, A. S. Reddy and A. K. Thukral, “RSM and ANN Modeling for Electrocoa- gulation of Copper from Simulated Wastewater: Multi Objective Optimization Using Genetic Algorithm App- roach,” Desalination, Vol. 274, No. 1-3, 2011, pp. 74-80. doi:10.1016/j.desal.2011.01.083
M. Behbahani, M. R. A. Moghaddam and M. Arami, “Techno-Economical Evaluation of Fluoride Removal by Electrocoagulation Process: Optimization through Response Surface Methodology,” Desalination, Vol. 271, No. 1-3, 2011, pp. 209-218. doi:10.1016/j.desal.2010.12.033
W. Chou and Y. Huang, “Electrochemical Removal of Indium Ions from Aqueous Solution Using Iron Electrodes,” Journal of Hazardous Materials, Vol. 172, No. 1, 2009, pp. 46-53. doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2009.06.119
A. Shafaei, M. Rezayee, M. Arami and M. Nikazar, “Removal of Mn2+ Ions from Synthetic Wastewater by Electrocoagulation Process,” Desalination, Vol. 260, No. 1-3, 2010, pp. 23-28. doi:10.1016/j.desal.2010.05.006
E. Lacasa, P. Canizares, C. Sáez, F. J. Fernández and M. A. Rodrigo, “Electrochemical Phosphates Removal Using Iron and Aluminium Electrodes,” Chemical Engineering Journal, Vol. 172, No. 1, 2011, pp. 137-143. doi:10.1016/j.cej.2011.05.080
S. Vasudevan, J. Lakshmi, J. Jayaraj and G. Sozhan, “Remediation of Phosphate-Contaminated Water by Electrocoagulation with Aluminium, Aluminium Alloy and Mild Steel Anodes,” Journal of Hazardous Materials, Vol. 164, No. 2-3, 2009, pp. 1480-1486. doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2008.09.076
Z. V. P. Murthy and S. Parmar, “Removal of Strontium by Electrocoagulation Using Stainless Steel and Aluminum Electrodes,” Desalination, Vol. 282, 2011, pp. 63-67. doi:10.1016/j.desal.2011.08.058
G. Moussavi, F. Majidi and M. Farzadkia, “The Influence of Operational Parameters on Elimination of Cyanide from Wastewater Using the Electrocoagulation Process,” Desalination, Vol. 280, No. 1-3, 2011, pp. 127-133. doi:10.1016/j.desal.2011.06.052
M. Pociecha and D. Lestan, “Using Electrocoagulation for Metal and Chelant Separation from Washing Solution after EDTA Leaching of Pb, Zn and Cd Contaminated Soil,” Journal of Hazardous Materials, Vol. 174, No. 1-3, 2010, pp. 670-678. doi:10.1016/j.jhazmat.2009.09.103
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N. Mameri, A. R. Yeddou, H. Lounici, D. Belhocine, H. Grib and B. Bariou, “Defluoridation of Septentrional Sahara Water of North Africa by Electrocoagulation Process Using Bipolar Aluminium Electrodes,” Water Research, Vol. 32, No. 5, 1998, pp. 1604-1612. doi:10.1016/S0043-1354(97)00357-6
M. Karhu, V. Kuokkanen, T. Kuokkanen and J. Ramo, “Bench Scale Electrocoagulation Studies of Bio Oil-in-Water and Synthetic Oil-in-Water Emulsions,” Separation and Purification Technology, Vol. 96, 2012, pp. 296-305. doi:10.1016/j.seppur.2012.06.003