Growth hormone (GH) and insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) have been suggested as “anti-aging” therapies, or for improving quality of life with aging. In this study, we focus on the actions of GH in the main organs and organ systems of the human body, like skeletal muscle, bones and brain, particularly in regard to data and research on the use of GH replacement therapy in adults without growth hormone deficiency, especially elderly patients. Several different studies have been carried out to show what the effects and side effects of GH replacement in healthy people and what would be the impact in quality of life and life span. In this review, we demonstrate what answers we have so far about the effects of GH replacement in many organs and systems in healthy people.
Huayllas, M.K.P., Carvalhaes-Neto, N., Ramos, L.R. and Kater, C.E. (2001) Níveis séricos de hormonio de crescimento, fator de crescimento símile à insulina e sulfato de deidroepiandrosterona em idosos residentes na comunidade. Correlacao com parametros clínicos. Arquivos Brasileiros de Endocrinologia & Metabologia, 45, 157-166.
Ceda, G.P., et al. (2005) Clinical Implications of the Reduced Activity of the GH-IGF1 Axis in Older Men. Journal of Endocrinological Investigation, 28, 96-100.
Bronstein, M.D. (2003) Reposicao de GH na “somatopausa”: Solucao ou problema? Arquivos Brasileiros de Endocrinologia & Metabologia, 47, 323-330.
Tanimoto, K., Hizuka, N., et al. (2008) The Influence of Age on the GH-IGF1 Axis in Patients with Acromegaly. European Journal of Endocrinology, 159, 375-379. https://doi.org/10.1530/EJE-08-0243
Boguszewski, C.L. (2001) Genética molecular do Eixo GH-IGF1. Arquivos Brasileiros de Endocrinologia & Metabologia, 45, 5-14.
Perrini, S., Laviola, L., et al. (2010) The GH/IGF-1 Axis and Signaling Pathways in the Muscle and Bone: Mechanisms Underlying Age Related Skeletal Muscle Wasting and Osteoporosis. Journal of Endocrinology, 205, 201-210. https://doi.org/10.1677/JOE-09-0431
Naves, L.A. (2016) Acromegalia: Visao Geral in Vilar L. Endocrinologia Clinica, Guanabara Koogan, 6th Edition, 56-71.
Vestergaard, P.F., et al. (2014) GH Signaling in Skeletal Muscle and Adipose Tissue in Healthy Human Subjects: Impact of Gender and Age. European Journal of Endocrinology, 171, 623-631. https://doi.org/10.1530/EJE-14-0538
Ikeda, H. and Kudo, M. (2016) Long Term Follow Up Results of Growth Hormone Therapy for Patients with Adults Growth Hormone Deficiency. Hormones, 15, 45-53.
Vendelbo, M.H., Christensen, B. and Gronbaek, S.B. (2015) GH Signaling in Human Adipose and Muscle Tissue during “Feast and Famine”: Amplification of Exercise Stimulation Following Fasting Compared to Glucose Administration. European Journal of Endocrinology, 173, 283-290. https://doi.org/10.1530/EJE-14-1157
Girgls, C.M., Mokbel, N. and DiGirolamo, D.J. (2014) Therapies for Musculoskeletal Disease: Can We Treat Two Birds with One Stone? Current Osteoporosis Reports, 12, 142-153. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11914-014-0204-5
Rosenberg, I.H. (1997) Sarcopenia: Origins and Clinical Relevance. Journal of Nutrition, 127, 990S-991S.
All, S. and Gracia, J. (2014) Sarcopenia, Cachexia and Aging: Diagnosis, Mechanisms and Therapeutic Options—A Mini-Review. Gerontology, 60, 294-305.
Giannoulis, M.G., Martin, F.C., et al. (2012) Hormone Replacement Therapy and Physical Function in Healthy Older Men. Time to Talk about Hormones? Endocrine Reviews, 33, 314-377. https://doi.org/10.1210/er.2012-1002
Sattler, F.R. (2013) Growth Hormone in the Aging Male. Best Practice & Research. Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism, 27, 541-555. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beem.2013.05.003
Morley, J.E., Anker, S.D. and Von Hachling, S. (2014) Prevalence, Incidence and Clinical Impact of Sarcopenia: Facts, Numbers and Epidemiology—Update 2014. Journal of Cachexia, Sarcopenia and Muscle, 5, 253-259. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13539-014-0161-y
Silva, T.A.A., et al. (2006) Sarcopenia associada ao envelhecimento: Aspectos Etiológicos e Opcoes Terapêuticas. Revista Brasileira de Reumatologia, 46, 391-397.
Veldhuis, J.D., Liem, A.Y., South, S., Weltman, A., Weltman, J., Clemmons, D.A., Abbott, R., Mulligan, T., Johnson, M.L. and Pincus, S. (1995) Differential Impact of Age, Sex Steroid Hormones, and Obesity on Basal versus Pulsatile Growth Hormone Secretion in Men as Assessed in an Ultrasensitive Chemiluminescence Assay. The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 80, 3209-3222.
Wolfe, R.R. (2006) The Underappreciated Role of Muscle in Health and Disease. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 84, 475-482.
Brioche, T., et al. (2014) Growth Hormone Replacement Therapy Prevents Sarcopenia by a Dual Mechanism: Improvement of Protein and of Antioxidant Defenses. The Journals of Gerontology Series A Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences, 69, 1186-1198.
Takahashi, Y. (2012) Essential Roles of Growth Hormone (GH) and Insulin-Like Growth Factor in the Liver. Endocrine Journal, 59, 955-962. https://doi.org/10.1507/endocrj.EJ12-0322
Poggiogalle, E., et al. (2016) Fatty Liver Index Associates with Relative Sarcopenia an GH/IGF-1 Status in Obese Subjects. PLoS ONE, 11, e0145811. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0145811
Southmay, E.A. and de Souza, M.J. (2016) A Summary of Influence of Exogenous Estrogen Administration across the Lifespan on the GH/IGF-1 Axis and Implications for Bone Health. Growth Hormone and IGF Research, 32, 2-13.
Devesa, J., Almenglo, C. and Devesa, P. (2016) Multiple Effects of Growth Hormone in the Body: Is It Really the Hormone for Growth? Clinical Medicine Insights: Endocrinology and Diabetes, 9, 47-71. https://doi.org/10.4137/CMED.S38201
Zhao, H.Y., Liu, J.M., Ning, G., Zhao, Y.J., Chen, Y., Sun, L.H., et al. (2008) Relationships between Insulin-Like Growth Factor-I (IGF-I) and OPG, RANKL, Bone Mineral Density in Healthy Chinese Women. Osteoporosis International, 19, 221-226. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00198-007-0440-y
Maya, B., Klibanski, A. and Tritos, N.A. (2014) Effects of Recombinant Human Growth Hormone Therapy on Bone Mineral Density in Adults with Growth Hormone Deficiency: A Meta-Analysis. The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 99, 852-860. https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.2013-3921
Van der Lely, A.J., et al. (2000) Use of Human GH in Elderly Patients with Accidental Hip Fracture. European Journal of Endocrinology, 143, 585-592. https://doi.org/10.1530/eje.0.1430585
Krantz, E., Trimpou, P. and Landin-Wilhelmsen, K. (2010) Effect of Growth Hormone Treatment of Fractures and Quality of Life in Postmenopausal Osteoporosis: A 10-Year Follow-Up Study. The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 100, 3251-3259. https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.2015-1757
Khan, A.S., et al. (2002) Growth Hormone, Insulin-Like Growth Factor-1 and the Aging Cardiovascular System. Cardiovascular Research, 54, 25-35. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0008-6363(01)00533-8
Sacca, L., Cittadini, A. and Fazio, S. (1994) Growth Hormone and the Heart. Endocrine Reviews, 15, 555-573. https://doi.org/10.1210/edrv-15-5-555
Sverrisdotir, Y., et al. (1998) Intense Sympathetic Nerve Activity in Adults with Hypopituitarism and Untreated Growth Hormone Deficiency. The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 83, 1881-1885.
Isgaard, J., Arcopinto, M., Karason, K. and Cittadini, A. (2015) GH and the Cardiovascular System: An Update on Topic at Heart. Endocrine, 48, 25-35. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12020-014-0327-6
Gola, M., Bonadonna, S., Doga, M. and Giustina, A. (2005) Clinical Review: Growth Hormone and Cardiovascular Risk Factors. The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 90, 1864-1870. https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.2004-0545
Cittadini, A., et al. (1994) Impaired Cardiac Performance in GH Deficient Adults and Its Improvement after GH Replacement. American Journal of Physiology, 267, 219-225.
Vasan, R.S., Sullivan, L.M., D’Agostino, R.B., Roubenoff, R., Harris, T., Sawyer, D.B., Levy, D. and Wilson, P.W. (2003) Serum Insulin-Like Growth Factor I and Risk for Heart Failure in Elderly Individuals without a Previous Myocardial Infarction: The Framingham Heart Study. Annals of Internal Medicine, 139, 642-648. https://doi.org/10.7326/0003-4819-139-8-200310210-00007
Genth-Zotz, S., Zotz, R., Geil, S., Voigtlander, T., Meyer, J. and Darius, H. (1999) Recombinant Growth Hormone Therapy in Patients with Ischemic Cardiomyopathy. Effects on Hemodynamics, Left Ventricular Function and Cardiopulmonary Exercise Capacity. Circulation, 99, 18-21. https://doi.org/10.1161/01.CIR.99.1.18
Volterrani, M., Desenzani, P., Lorusso, R., d’Aloia, A., Manelli, F. and Giustina, A. (1997) Haemodynamic Effects of Intravenous Growth Hormone in Congestive Heart Failure. The Lancet, 349, 1067-1068. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(97)24015-8
Deijen, J.B., Arwert, L.I. and Drent, M.L. (2011) The GH/IGF-I Axis and Cognitive Changes across a 4-Year Period in Healthy Adults. ISRN Endocrinology, 2011, Article ID: 249421.
Vitiello, M.V., Moe, K.E., Merriam, G.R., Mazzoni, G., Buchner, D.H. and Schwartz, R.S. (2006) Growth Hormone Releasing Hormone Improves the Cognition of Healthy Older Adults. Neurobiology of Aging, 27, 318-323. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2005.01.010
Tumati, S., et al. (2016) Association between Cognition and Serum Insulin-Like-Growth-Factor-1 in Middle-Aged and Older Men: An 8-Year Follow-Up Study. PLoS ONE, 11, e0154450.
Licht, C.M., van Turenhout, L.C., Deijen, J.B., Koppes, L.L., van Mechelen, W., Twisk, J.W., et al. (2014) The Association between IGF-1 Polymorphisms, IFG-1 Serum Levels and Cognitive Function in Healthy Adults: The Amsterdam Growth and Healthy Longitudinal Study. International Journal of Endocrinology, 2014, Article ID: 181327. https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/181327
Delaimy, W.K., von Muhlen, D. and Barrett-Connor, E. (2009) Insulin-Like Growth Factor-1, Insulin-Like Growth Factor Binding Protein-1, and Cognitive Function in Older Men and Women. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 57, 1441-1446. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-5415.2009.02343.x
Arwert, L.I., Deijen, J.B. and Drent, M.L. (2005) The Relation between Insulin-Like Growth Factor I Levels and Cognition in Healthy Elderly: A Meta-Analysis. Growth Hormone & IGF Research, 15, 416-422. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ghir.2005.09.001
Carro, E., Trejo, J.L., Gerber, A., et al. (2006) Therapeutic Actions of Insulin-Like Growth Factor I on APP/PS2 Mice with Severe Brain Amyloidosis. Neurobiology of Aging, 27, 1250-1257. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2005.06.015
Liu, H., Bravata, D.M., Olkin, I., et al. (2007) Systematic Review: The Safety and Efficacy of Growth Hormone in the Healthy Elderly. Annals of Internal Medicine, 146, 104-115. https://doi.org/10.7326/0003-4819-146-2-200701160-00005
Spinola e Castro, A.M., de Sao Paulo, S.P. and Guerra-Júnior, G. (2005) GH/IGF-1 e neoplasia: O que há de novo nessa associacao. Arquivos Brasileiros de Endocrinologia & Metabologia, 49, 833-842.
Renehan, A.G., Zwahlen, M., Minder, C., O’Dwyer, S.T., Shalet, S.M. and Egger, M. (2004) Insulin-Like Growth Factor (IGF)-I, IGF Binding Protein-3, and Cancer Risk: Systematic Review and Meta-Regression Analysis. The Lancet, 363, 1346-1353. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(04)16044-3
Janssen, J.A. and Lamberts, S.W. (2004) Igf-I and Longevity. Logo Hormone Research in Paediatrics, 62, 104-109. https://doi.org/10.1159/000080508
Rozing, M.P., Westendorp, R.G., Frolich, M., de Craen, A.J., Beekman, M., Heijmans, B.T., Mooijaart, S.P., Blauw, G.J., Slagboom, P.E. and van Heemst, D., Leiden Longevity Study (LLS) Group (2009) Human Insulin/IGF-1 and Familial Longevity at Middle Age. Aging (Albany NY), 1, 714-722. https://doi.org/10.18632/aging.100071
Brost, S.E. (2004) Interventions for Sarcopenia and Muscle Weakness in Older People. Age and Ageing, 33, 548-555. http://ageing.oxfordjournals.org
Cohn, L., Feller, A.G., Draper, M.W., Rudman, I.W. and Rudman, D. (1993) Carpal Tunnel Syndrome and Gynecomastia during Growth Hormone Treatment of Elderly Men with Low Circulating IGF-I Concentrations. Clinical Endocrinology, 39, 417-425. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2265.1993.tb02388.x
Yarasheski, K.E. and Zachwieja, J.J. (1993) Growth Hormone Therapy for the Elderly: The Fountain of Youth Proves Toxic. JAMA, 270, 1694-1694. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.1993.03510140054027