Computerized Cognitive Training in Healthy Older Adults: Baseline Cognitive Level and Subjective Cognitive Concerns Predict Training Outcome — Oak Academic Publishing
Research ArticleOpen AccessGoogle Scholar indexed
Computerized Cognitive Training in Healthy Older Adults: Baseline Cognitive Level and Subjective Cognitive Concerns Predict Training Outcome
Department of Medical Psychology/Neuropsychology and Gender Studies & Center for Neuropsychological Diagnostics and Intervention (CeNDI), University Hospital Cologne, Cologne, Germany
,
Institute of Gerontology, Department of Psychological Gerontology, University of Vechta, Vechta, Germany
,
Department of Medical Psychology/Neuropsychology and Gender Studies & Center for Neuropsychological Diagnostics and Intervention (CeNDI), University Hospital Cologne, Cologne, Germany
Department of Neurology, University Hospital Cologne, Cologne, Germany
,
Institute of Gerontology, Department of Psychological Gerontology, University of Vechta, Vechta, Germany
,
Department of Neurology, University Hospital Cologne, Cologne, Germany
1 Department of Medical Psychology/Neuropsychology and Gender Studies & Center for Neuropsychological Diagnostics and Intervention (CeNDI), University Hospital Cologne, Cologne, Germany
2 Institute of Gerontology, Department of Psychological Gerontology, University of Vechta, Vechta, Germany
3 Department of Medical Psychology/Neuropsychology and Gender Studies & Center for Neuropsychological Diagnostics and Intervention (CeNDI), University Hospital Cologne, Cologne, Germany
Computerized cognitive training (CCT) can improve cognition in older adults. However, specific programs for this target group have rarely been developed, and predictors of training success are largely unclear. In a randomized controlled pilot trial, we examined effects of a six-week CCT, tailored to the cognitive profile of healthy older adults (EG, n = 21) as compared to a nonspecific CCT (CG, n = 18) matched in frequency and intensity. No interaction effects between Group and Time were found. However, within-group analysis showed significant gains in verbal and non-verbal memory, executive and visuospatial functions and subjective cognitive concerns (SCC) in the EG, while the CG only benefitted in non-verbal memory and set-shifting. Low cognitive performance and lower SCC at baseline were the most consistent predictors of cognitive gains in the EG. Thus, CCTs specifically tailored to older adults seem advantageous compared to non-specific CCT. Further, we conclude that SCC may be related to reduced cognitive plasticity.
Baltes, P.B. and Singer, T. (2001) Plasticity and the Ageing Mind: An Exemplar of the Bio-Cultural Orchestration of Brain and Behaviour. European Review, 9, 59-76. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1062798701000060
Li, H.-J., Hou, X.-H., Liu, H.-H., Yue, C.-L., Lu, G.-M. and Zuo, X.-N. (2015) Putting Age-Related Task Activation into Large-Scale Brain Networks: A Meta-Analysis of 114 fMRI Studies on Healthy Aging. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 57, 156-174. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2015.08.013
Reuter-Lorenz, P.A. and Park, D.C. (2014) How Does It STAC Up? Revisiting the Scaffolding Theory of Aging and Cognition. Neuropsychology Review, 24, 355-370. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11065-014-9270-9
Kelly, M.E., Loughrey, D., Lawlor, B.A., Robertson, I.H., Walsh, C. and Brennan, S. (2014) The Impact of Cognitive Training and Mental Stimulation on Cognitive and Everyday Functioning of Healthy Older Adults: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Ageing Research Reviews, 15, 28-43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.arr.2014.02.004
Rebok, G.W., Ball, K., Guey, L.T., Jones, R.N., Kim, H.Y., King, J.W., et al. (2014) Ten-Year Effects of the Advanced Cognitive Training for Independent and Vital Elderly Cognitive Training Trial on Cognition and Everyday Functioning in Older Adults. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 62, 16-24. https://doi.org/10.1111/jgs.12607
Reijnders, J., van Heugten, C. and van Boxtel, M. (2013) Cognitive Interventions in Healthy Older Adults and People with Mild Cognitive Impairment: A Systematic Review. Ageing Research Reviews, 12, 263-275. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.arr.2012.07.003
Tardif, S. and Simard, M. (2011) Cognitive Stimulation Programs in Healthy Elderly: A Review. International Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, 2011, Article ID: 378934. https://doi.org/10.4061/2011/378934
Karbach, J. and Verhaeghen, P. (2014) Making Working Memory Work a Meta-Analysis of Executive-Control and Working Memory Training in Older Adults. Psychological Science, 25, 2027-2037. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797614548725
Kueider, A.M., Parisi, J.M., Gross, A.L. and Rebok, G.W. (2012) Computerized Cognitive Training with Older Adults: A Systematic Review. PLoS ONE, 7, e40588. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0040588
Shah, T.M., Weinborn, M., Verdile, G., Sohrabi, H.R. and Martins, R.N. (2017) Enhancing Cognitive Functioning in Healthly Older Adults: A Systematic Review of the Clinical Significance of Commercially Available Computerized Cognitive Training in Preventing Cognitive Decline. Neuropsychology Review, 27, 62-80. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11065-016-9338-9
Lampit, A., Hallock, H. and Valenzuela, M. (2014) Computerized Cognitive Training in Cognitively Healthy Older Adults: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Effect Modifiers. PLOS Medicine, 11, e1001756. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1001756
Buckner, R.L. (2004) Memory and Executive Function in Aging and AD: Multiple Factors That Cause Decline and Reserve Factors That Compensate. Neuron, 44, 195-208. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2004.09.006
Kalbe, E. and Kessler, J. (2009) Gerontoneuropsychologie-Grundlagen und Pathologie. Lehrbuch der klinischen Neuropsychologie, 2, 789-819. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-8274-2248-4_47
Park, D.C. and Reuter-Lorenz, P. (2009) The Adaptive Brain: Aging and Neurocognitive Scaffolding. Annual Review of Psychology, 60, 173-196. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.59.103006.093656
Buschert, V.C., Friese, U., Teipel, S.J., Schneider, P., Merensky, W., Rujescu, D., et al. (2011) Effects of a Newly Developed Cognitive Intervention in Amnestic Mild Cognitive Impairment and Mild Alzheimer’s Disease: A Pilot Study. Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, 25, 679-694.
Buschert, V.C., Giegling, I., Teipel, S.J., Jolk, S., Hampel, H., Rujescu, D., et al. (2012) Long-Term Observation of a Multicomponent Cognitive Intervention in Mild Cognitive Impairment. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 73, e1492-8. https://doi.org/10.4088/JCP.11m07270
Rahe, J., Becker, J., Fink, G.R., Kessler, J., Kukolja, J., Rahn, A., et al. (2015) Cognitive Training with and without Additional Physical Activity in Healthy Older Adults: Cognitive Effects, Neurobiological Mechanisms, and Prediction of Training Success. Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience, 7, 187. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnagi.2015.00187
Petrelli, A., Kaesberg, S., Barbe, M.T., Timmermann, L., Fink, G.R., Kessler, J., et al. (2014) Effects of Cognitive Training in Parkinson’s Disease: A Randomized Controlled Trial. Parkinsonism & Related Disorders, 20, 1196-1202. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.parkreldis.2014.08.023
Fairchild, J., Friedman, L., Rosen, A. and Yesavage, J. (2013) Which Older Adults Maintain Benefit from Cognitive Training? Use of Signal Detection Methods to Identify Long-Term Treatment Gains. International Psychogeriatrics, 25, 607-616. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1041610212002049
Whitlock, L.A., McLaughlin, A.C. and Allaire, J.C. (2012) Individual Differences in Response to Cognitive Training: Using a Multi-Modal, Attentionally Demanding Game-Based Intervention for Older Adults. Computers in Human Behavior, 28, 1091-1096. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2012.01.012
Peretz, C., Korczyn, A.D., Shatil, E., Aharonson, V., Birnboim, S. and Giladi, N. (2011) Computer-Based, Personalized Cognitive Training versus Classical Computer Games: A Randomized Double-Blind Prospective Trial of Cognitive Stimulation. Neuroepidemiology, 36, 91-99. https://doi.org/10.1159/000323950
Erickson, K.I., Miller, D.L. and Roecklein, K.A. (2012) The Aging Hippocampus: Interactions between Exercise, Depression, and BDNF. The Neuroscientist, 18, 82-97. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073858410397054
Voss, M.W., Erickson, K.I., Prakash, R.S., Chaddock, L., Kim, J.S., Alves, H., et al. (2013) Neurobiological Markers of Exercise-Related Brain Plasticity in Older Adults. Brain, Behavior, and Immunity, 28. 90-99. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbi.2012.10.021
Backman, L. and Forsell, Y. (1994) Episodic Memory Functioning in a Community-Based Sample of Old Adults with Major Depression: Utilization of Cognitive Support. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 103, 361-370. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.103.2.361
Pascual-Leone, A., Freitas, C., Oberman, L., Horvath, J.C., Halko, M., Eldaief, M., et al. (2011) Characterizing Brain Cortical Plasticity and Network Dynamics across the Age-Span in Health and Disease with TMS-EEG and TMS-fMRI. Brain Topography, 24, 302-315. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10548-011-0196-8
Middelstadt, J., Folkerts, A.-K., Blawath, S. and Kalbe, E. (2016) Cognitive Stimulation for People with Dementia in Long-Term Care Facilities: Baseline Cognitive Level Predicts Cognitive Gains, Moderated by Depression. Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, 54, 253-268. https://doi.org/10.3233/JAD-160181
Smith, B. (2013) Depression and Motivation. Phenomenology and the Cognitive Sciences, 12, 615-635. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11097-012-9264-0
Nestler, E.J., Barrot, M., DiLeone, R.J., Eisch, A.J., Gold, S.J. and Monteggia, L.M. (2002) Neurobiology of Depression. Neuron, 34, 13-25. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0896-6273(02)00653-0
Bottiroli, S. and Cavallini, E. (2009) Can Computer Familiarity Regulate the Benefits of Computer-Based Memory Training in Normal Aging? A Study with an Italian Sample of Older Adults. Aging, Neuropsychology, and Cognition, 16, 401-418. https://doi.org/10.1080/13825580802691763
Graessel, E., Stemmer, R., Eichenseer, B., Pickel, S., Donath, C., Kornhuber, J., et al. (2011) Non-Pharmacological, Multicomponent Group Therapy in Patients with Degenerative Dementia: A 12-Month Random-ized, Controlled Trial. BMC Medicine, 9, 129. https://doi.org/10.1080/13825580802691763
Binetti, G., Moretti, D.V., Scalvini, C., Giovanni, G., Verzeletti, C., Mazzini, F., et al. (2013) Predictors of Comprehensive Stimulation Program Efficacy in Patients with Cognitive Impairment. Clinical Practice Recommendations. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 28, 26-33. https://doi.org/10.1002/gps.3785
Aguirre, E., Hoare, Z., Streater, A., Spector, A., Woods, B., Hoe, J., et al. (2013) Cognitive Stimulation Therapy (CST) for People with Dementia—Who Benefits Most? International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 28, 284-290. https://doi.org/10.1002/gps.3823
Simons, D.J., Boot, W.R., Charness, N., Gathercole, S.E., Chabris, C.F., Hambrick, D.Z., et al. (2016) Do “Brain-Training” Programs Work? Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 17, 103-186. https://doi.org/10.1177/1529100616661983
Rahe, J., Liesk, J., Rosen, J.B., Petrelli, A., Kaesberg, S., Onur, O.A., et al. (2015) Sex Differences in cognitive Training Effects of Patients with Amnestic Mild Cognitive Impairment. Aging, Neuropsychology, and Cognition, 22, 620-638. https://doi.org/10.1080/13825585.2015.1028883
Olazaran, J., Muniz, R., Reisberg, B., Pena-Casanova, J., Del Ser, T., Cruz-Jentoft, A., et al. (2004) Benefits of Cognitive-Motor Intervention in MCI and Mild to Moderate Alzheimer Disease. Neurology, 63, 2348-2353. https://doi.org/10.1212/01.WNL.0000147478.03911.28
Christoph, R.T., Schoenfeld Jr, G.A. and Tansky, J.W. (1998) Overcoming Barriers to Training Utilizing Technology: The Influence of Self-Efficacy Factors on Multimedia-Based Training Receptiveness. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 9, 25-38. https://doi.org/10.1002/hrdq.3920090104
Carretti, B., Borella, E., Zavagnin, M. and De Beni, R. (2011) Impact of Metacognition and Motivation on the Efficacy of Strategic Memory Training in Older Adults: Analysis of Specific, Transfer and Maintenance Effects. Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics, 52, e192-e197. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.archger.2010.11.004
Colquitt, J.A., LePine, J.A. and Noe, R.A. (2000) Toward an Integrative Theory of Training Motivation: A Meta-Analytic Path Analysis of 20 Years of Research. Journal of Applied Psychology, 85, 678-707. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.85.5.678
Jessen, F., Wiese, B., Bachmann, C., Eifflaender-Gorfer, S., Haller, F., Kolsch, H., et al. (2010) Prediction of Dementia by Subjective Memory Impairment: Effects of Severity and Temporal Association with Cognitive Impairment. Archives of General Psychiatry, 67, 414-422. https://doi.org/10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2010.30
Jessen, F., Wiese, B., Bickel, H., Eifflander-Gorfer, S., Fuchs, A., Kaduszkiewicz, H., et al. (2011) Prediction of Dementia in Primary Care Patients. PLoS ONE, 6, e16852. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0016852
Boutron, I., Moher, D., Altman, D.G., Schulz, K.F. and Ravaud, P. (2008) Extending the CONSORT Statement to Randomized Trials of Nonpharmacologic Treatment: Explanation and Elaboration. Annals of Internal Medicine, 148, 295-309. https://doi.org/10.7326/0003-4819-148-4-200802190-00008
Moher, D., Hopewell, S., Schulz, K.F., Montori, V., Gotzsche, P.C., Devereaux, P., et al. (2012) CONSORT 2010 Explanation and Elaboration: Updated Guidelines for Reporting Parallel Group Randomised Trials. International Journal of Surgery, 10, 28-55. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijsu.2011.10.001
Schulz, K.F., Altman, D.G. and Moher, D. (2010) CONSORT 2010 Statement: Updated Guidelines for Reporting Parallel Group Randomised Trials. BMC Medicine, 8, 18. https://doi.org/10.1186/1741-7015-8-18
World Medical Association Declaration of Helsinki (1997) Recommendations Guiding Physicians in Biomedical Research Involving Human Subjects. Journal of the American Medical Association, 227, 925-926
Nasreddine, Z.S., Phillips, N.A., Bédirian, V., Charbonneau, S., Whitehead, V., Collin, I., et al. (2005) The Montreal Cognitive Assessment, MoCA: A Brief Screening Tool for Mild Cognitive Impairment. Journal of the American Geriatrics Society, 53, 695-699. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-5415.2005.53221.x
Beck, A.T., Steer, R.A. and Brown, G.K. (1996) Beck Depression Inventory-II. San Antonio, 78, 490-498.
Baller, G., Kalbe, E., Kaesberg, S. and Kessler, J. (2010) NEUROvitalis. Neuro-psychologisches Gruppentraining. Prolog, Cologne.
Gobel, S., Salvatore, L. and Konrad, R. (2008) StoryTec: A Digital Story-telling Platform for the Authoring and Experiencing of Interactive and Non-Linear Stories. International Conference on Automated Solutions for Cross Media Content and Multi-Channel Distribution, AXMEDIS’08, Florence, 17-19 November 2008 103-110.
Reuter, C., Gobel, S. and Steinmetz, R. (2014) A Collection of Collaborative Player Interaction Patterns. TU Darmstadt, Multimedia Communcations Lab.
Helmstaedter, C., Lendt, M. and Lux, S. (2001) VLMT: Verbaler Lernund Merkfahigkeitstest. Beltz Test, Gottingen.
Petermann, F. and Lepach, A. (2012) Wechsler Memory Scale–Fourth Edition (WMS-IV) Manual zur Durchführung und Auswertung. Deutsche übersetzung und Adaptation der WMS-IV von David Wechsler. Pearson Assessment, Frankfurt/Main.
Schretlen, D. (1997) Brief Test of Attention (BTA). Psychological Assessment Resources, Inc., Florida.
Reitan, R.M. (1992) Trail Making Test: Manual for Administration and Scoring. Reitan Neuropsychology Laboratory, Length.
Tombaugh, T.N. (2004) Trail Making Test A and B: Normative Data Stratified by Age and Education. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 19, 203-214. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0887-6177(03)00039-8
Aschenbrenner, S., Tucha, O. and Lange, K.W. (2000) Regensburger Wortflüssigkeits-Test. RWT, Hogrefe, Verlag für Psychologie.
Wilson, B.A., Evans, J.J., Alderman, N., Burgess, P.W. and Emslie, H. (1997) Behavioural Assessment of the Dysexecutive Syndrome. In: Rabbitt, P., Ed., Methodology of Frontal and Executive Function, Psychology Press, East Sussex, 239-250.
Sturm, W., Willmes, K. and Horn, W. (1993) Leistungsprüfungssystem für 50-90 jahrige (LPS 50+). Hogrefe, Verlag für Psychologie, Handanweisung.
Neyer, F.J., Felber, J. and Gebhardt, C. (2012) Entwicklung und Validierung einer Kurzskala zur Erfassung von Technikbereitschaft. Diagnostica, 58, 87-99. https://doi.org/10.1026/0012-1924/a000067
Jerusalem, M. and Schwarzer, R. (1999) Skala zur allgemeinen Selbstwirksamkeitserwartung Skalen zur Erfassung von Lehrer-und Schülermerkmalen. Dokumentation der psychometrischen Verfahren im Rahmen der Wissenschaftlichen Begleitung des Modellversuchs Selbstwirksame Schulen. Freie Universitat Berlin, Ber-lin.
Erdfelder, E., Faul, F. and Buchner, A. (1996) GPOWER: A General Power Analysis Program. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers, 28, 1-11. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03203630
Jacobson, N.S. and Truax, P. (1991) Clinical Significance: A Statistical Approach to Defining Meaningful Change in Psychotherapy Research. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 59, 12-19. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.59.1.12
Field, A. (2013) Discovering Statistics Using IBM SPSS Statistics. Sage, London.
Jessen, F., Amariglio, R.E., Van Boxtel, M., Breteler, M., Ceccaldi, M., Chételat, G., et al. (2014) A Conceptual Framework for Research on Subjective Cognitive Decline in Preclinical Alzheimer’s Disease. Alzheimer's & Dementia, 10, 844-852. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jalz.2014.01.001
Jessen, F. (2014) Subjective and Objective Cognitive Decline at the Pre-Dementia Stage of Alzheimer’s Disease. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 264, 3-7. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00406-014-0539-z
Smart, C.M., Karr, J.E., Areshenkoff, C.N., Rabin, L.A., Hudon, C., Gates, N., et al. (2017) Non-Pharmacologic Interventions for Older Adults with Subjective Cognitive Decline: Systematic Review, Meta-Analysis, and Preliminary Recommendations. Neuropsychology Review, 1-13.
Engvig, A., Fjell, A.M., Westlye, L.T., Skaane, N.V., Dale, A.M., Holland, D., et al. (2014) Effects of Cognitive Training on Gray Matter Volumes in Memory Clinic Patients with Subjective Memory Impairment. Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, 41, 779-791.
Gist, M.E. and Mitchell, T.R. (1992) Self-Efficacy: A Theoretical Analysis of Its Determinants and Malleability. Academy of Management Review, 17, 183-211.
Beinhoff, U., Tumani, H., Brettschneider, J., Bittner, D. and Riepe, M. (2008) Gender-Specificities in Alzheimer’s Disease and Mild Cognitive Impairment. Journal of Neurology, 255, 117-122. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00415-008-0726-9
Yesavage, J.A., Sheikh, J.I., Friedman, L. and Tanke, E. (1990) Learning Mnemonics: Roles of Aging and Subtle Cognitive Impairment. Psychology and Aging, 5, 133-137. https://doi.org/10.1037/0882-7974.5.1.133
Verhaeghen, P., Marcoen, A. and Goossens, L. (1992) Improving Memory Performance in the Aged through Mnemonic Training: A Meta-Analytic Study. Psychology and Aging, 7, 242-251. https://doi.org/10.1037/0882-7974.7.2.242
Rebok, G.W., Langbaum, J.B., Jones, R.N., Gross, A.L., Parisi, J.M., Spira, A.P., et al. (2013) Memory Training in the ACTIVE Study: How Much Is Needed and Who Benefits? Journal of Aging and Health, 25, 21S-42S. https://doi.org/10.1177/0898264312461937
Brooks, J.O., Friedman, L., Pearman, A.M., Gray, C. and Yesavage, J.A. (1999) Mnemonic Training in Older Adults: Effects of Age, Length of Training, and Type of Cognitive Pretraining. International Psychogeriatrics, 11, 75-84. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1041610299005608
Dorfman, C.R. and Ager, C.L. (1989) Memory and Memory Training: Some Treatment Implications for Use with the Well Elderly. Physical & Occupational Therapy in Geriatrics, 7, 21-42.
Rasmusson, D.X., Rebok, G.W., Bylsma, F.W. and Brandt, J. (1999) Effects of Three Types of Memory Training in Normal Elderly. Aging, Neuropsychology, and Cognition, 6, 56-66. https://doi.org/10.1076/anec.6.1.56.790
Cheng, Y., Wu, W., Feng, W., Wang, J., Chen, Y., Shen, Y., et al. (2012) The Effects of Multi-Domain versus Single-Domain Cognitive Training in Non-Demented Older People: A Randomized Controlled Trial. BMC Medicine, 10, 30. https://doi.org/10.1186/1741-7015-10-30
Gates, N. and Valenzuela, M. (2010) Cognitive Exercise and Its Role in Cognitive Function in Older Adults. Current Psychiatry Reports, 12, 20-27. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11920-009-0085-y