Primary impairments of developmental coordination disorder (DCD) include impairments in motor skill, motor learning, and imitation. Such difficulties present challenges for individuals with DCD and may persist into adulthood, negatively impacting daily life in school, work, and social domains. A better understanding of the neural correlates of motor and imitation impairments in DCD holds the potential for informing development of treatment approaches to address these impairments. Although the disorder is assumed to be of neurological origin, little is known of the brain-based etiology of DCD. In recent years the discovery of a fronto-parietal circuit—known as the mirror neuron system—has enabled researchers to better understand imitation, general motor functions, and aspects of social cognition. Given its involvement in imitation and other motor functions, we propose that dysfunction in the mirror neuron system may underlie the characteristic impairments of DCD. We review literature pertaining to the mirror neuron system and develop a theory of disordered mirror neuron functioning in DCD. Finally, we review the limited neuroimaging literature available on neural correlates of DCD and show that the findings from those investigations are congruent with a mirror neuron system theory of DCD. Future research in this population should be designed to investigate specifically mirror neuron regions in individuals with DCD during skilled motor tasks and imitation in particular.
S. Cermak, S. S. Gubbay and D. Larkin, “What Is Developmental Coordination Disorder?” In: Cermak & Larkin, Eds., Developmental Coordination Disorder, Thomson Learning, Inc., 2002, pp. 2-22.
J. O’Brien, J. Spencer, J. Atkinson, O. Braddick and J. Wattam-Bell, “Form and Motion Coherence Processing in Dyspraxia: Evidence of a Global Spatial Processing Deficit,” Neuroreport, Vol. 13, No. 11, 2002, pp. 1399-1402. doi:10.1097/00001756-200208070-00010
Reeves and Cermak. “Disorders of Praxis,” In: A. C. Bundy, S. J. Lane and E. A. Murray, Eds., Sensory Integration: Theory and Practice, 2nd Edition, F. A. Davis Company, 2002, pp. 71-100.
A. J. Ayres, “Sensory Integration and Praxis Tests: Manual,” Western Psychological Services, Los Angeles, 1989-2004.
P. H. Wilson, “Practitioner Review—Approaches to Assessment and Treatment of Children with DCD: An Evaluative Review,” Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, Vol. 46, No. 8, 2005, pp. 806-823. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2005.01409.x
A. J. Ayres, “Patterns of Perceptual Motor Dysfunction in Children: A Factor-Analytic Study,” Perceptual and Motor Skills, Vol. 20, No. 2, 1965, pp. 335-368. doi:10.2466/pms.1965.20.2.335
M. Biancotto, A. Skabar, M. Bulgheroni, M. Carrozzi, and S. Zoia, “Neuromotor Deficits in Developmental Coordination Disorder: Evidence from a Reach-to-Grasp Task,” Research in Developmental Disabilities, Vol. 32, No. 4, 2011, pp. 1293-1300. doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2011.02.007
D. Dewey, “What Is Developmental Dyspraxia?” Brain and Cognition, Vol. 29, No. 3, 1995, pp. 254-273. doi:10.1006/brcg.1995.1281
J. L. Poole, J. Gallagher, J. Janosky and C. Qualls, “The Mechanisms for Adult-Onset Apraxia and Developmental Dyspraxia: An Examination and Comparison of Error Patterns,” American Journal of Occupational Therapy, Vol. 51, No. 5, 1997, pp. 339-346. doi:10.5014/ajot.51.5.339
C. Sinani, D. A. Sugden and E. L. Hil, “Gesture Production in School Vs Clinical Samples of Children with Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) and Typically Developing Children,” Research in Developmental Disabilities, Vol. 32, No. 4, 2011, pp. 1270-1282. doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2011.01.030
K. Wilmut, J. P. Wann and J. H. Brown, “Problems in the Coupling of Eye and Hand in the Sequential Movements of Children with Developmental Coordination Disorder,” Child: Care, Health and Development, Vol. 32, No. 6, 2006, pp. 665-678. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2214.2006.00678.x
F. Gheysen, H. Van Waelvelde and W. Fias, “Impaired Visuo-Motor Sequence Learning in Developmental Coordination Disorder,” Research in Developmental Disabilities, Vol. 32, No. 2, 2011, pp. 749-756. doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2010.11.005
C. Missiuna and H. Polatajko, “Developmental Dyspraxia by Any Other Name: Are They All Just Clumsy Children?” American Journal of Occupational Therapy, Vol. 49, No. 7, 1995, pp. 619-627.
Y. W. Chen, M. H. Tseng, F. C. Hu and S. A. Cermak, “Psychosocial Adjustment and Attention in Children with Developmental Coordination Disorder Using Different Motor Tasks,” Research in Developmental Disabilities, Vol. 30, No. 6, 2009, pp. 1367-1377. doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2009.06.004
M. Cantell and L. Kooistra, “Long-Term Outcomes of Developmental Coordination Disorder,” In: S. A. Cermak and D. Larkin, Eds., Developmental Coordination Disorder, Thomson Learning, Inc., 2002, pp. 23-38.
M. Cousins and M. M. Smyth, “Developmental Coordination Impairments in Adulthood,” Human Movement Science, Vol. 22, No. 4-5, 2003, pp. 433-459. doi:10.1016/j.humov.2003.09.003
A. Kirby, D. Sugden, S. Beveridge and L. Edwards, “Developmental Co-Ordination Disorder (DCD) in Adolescents and Adults in Further and Higher Education,” Journal of Research in Special Education Needs, Vol. 8, No. 3, 2008, pp. 120-131. doi:10.1111/j.1471-3802.2008.00111.x
S. S. Gubbay, E. Ellis, J. N. Walton and S. D. M. Court, “Clumsy Children: A Study of Apraxic and Agnostic Defects in 21 Children,” Brain, Vol. 88, No. 2, 1969, pp. 295-312. doi:10.1093/brain/88.2.295
M. T. Dare and N. Gordon, “Clumsy Children: A Disorder of Perception and Motor Organization,” Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, Vol. 12, No. 2, 1970, pp. 178-185. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8749.1970.tb01886.x
A. E. Wall, G. Reid and J. Paton, “The Syndrome of Physical Awkwardness,” In: G. Reid, Ed., Problems in Movement Control, Elsevier Science Publishers, Amsterdam, 1990, pp. 283-315.
S. A. Goodgold-Edwards and S. A. Cermak, “Integrating Motor Control and Motor Learning Concepts with Neuropsychological Perspectives on Apraxia and Developmental Dyspraxia,” American Journal of Occupational Therapy, Vol. 44, No. 5, 1990, pp. 431-439.
L. C. Magalh?es, C. Missiuna and S. Wong, “Terminology Used in Research Reports of Developmental Coordination Disorder,” Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, Vol. 48, No. 11, 2006, pp. 937-941. doi:10.1017/S0012162206002040
T. D. Sanger, D. Chen and M. R. Delgado, D. Gaebler-Spira, M. Hallett and J. W. Mink, “Definition and Classification of Negative Motor Signs in Childhood,” Pediatrics, Vol. 118, 2006, pp. 2159-2167. doi:10.1542/peds.2005-3016
H. J. Polatajko, M. Fox and C. Missiuna, “An International Consensus on Children with Developmental Coordination Disorder,” Canadian Journal of Occupational Therapy, Vol. 62, No. 1, 1995, pp. 3-6.
American Psychiatric Association, “Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders: DSM-IV-TR,” American Psychiatric Association, Arlington, 2000.
M. H. Cantell, M. M. Smyth and T. P. Ahonen, “Two Distinct Pathways for Developmental Coordination Disorder: Persistence and Resolution,” Human Movement Science, Vol. 22, No. 4-5, 2003, pp. 413-431. doi:10.1016/j.humov.2003.09.002
A. Kirby, L. Edwards and D. Sugden, “Emerging Adulthood in Developmental Co-Ordination Disorder: Parent and Young Adult Perspectives,” Research in Developmental Disabilities, Vol. 32, No. 4, 2011, pp. 1351-1360. doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2011.01.041
A. Kirby, L. Edwards, D. Sugden and S. Rosenblum, “The Development and Standardization of the Adult Developmental Co-Ordination Disorders/Dyspraxia Checklist (ADC),” Research in Developmental Disabilities, Vol. 31, No. 1, 2011, pp. 131-139. doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2009.08.010
C. Missiuna, S. Moll, G. King, D. Stewart and K. Mac-Donald, “Life Experiences of Young Adults Who Have Coordination Difficulties,” Canadian Journal of Occupational Therapy, Vol. 75, No. 3, 2008, pp. 157-166.
H. Van Waelvelde, W. De Weerdt and P. De Cock, “Children with Developmental Coordination Disorder,” European Bulletin of Adapted Physical Activity, Vol. 4, 2005, Electronic Journal.
P. H. Wilson and B. E. McKenzie, “Information Processing Deficits Associated with Developmental Coordination Disorder: A Meta-Analysis of Research Findings,” Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, Vol. 39, No. 6, 1998, pp. 829-840. doi:10.1017/S0021963098002765
L. J. Buxbaum, “Ideomotor Apraxia: A Call to Action,” Neurocase, Vol. 7, No. 6, 2001, pp. 445-458. doi:10.1093/neucas/7.6.445
G. Goldenberg, “Apraxia and the Parietal Lobes,” Neuropsychologia, Vol. 47, No. 6, 2009, pp. 1449-1459. doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2008.07.014
K. Y. Haaland, D. L. Harrington and R. T. Knight, “Neural Representations of Skilled Movement,” Brain, Vol. 123, No. 11, 2000, pp. 2306-2313. doi:10.1093/brain/123.11.2306
M. Pazzaglia, N. Smania, E. Corato and S. M. Aglioti, “Neural Underpinnings of Gesture Discrimination in Patients with Limb Apraxia,” The Journal of Neuroscience, Vol. 28, No. 12, 2008, pp. 3030-3041. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.5748-07.2008
M. Bax, C. Tydeman and O. Flodmark, “Clinical and MRI Correlates of Cerebral Palsy,” JAMA: The Journal of the American Medical Association, Vol. 296, No. 13, 2006, pp. 1602-1608. doi:10.1001/jama.296.13.1602
S. H. Mostofsky, S. K. Powell, D. J. Simmonds, M. C. Goldberg, B. Caffo and J. J. Pekar, “Decreased Connectivity and Cerebellar Activity in Autism During Motor Task Performance,” Brain, Vol. 132, No. 9, 2009, pp. 2413-2425. doi:10.1093/brain/awp088
D. Dewey, M. Cantell and S. G. Crawford, “Motor and Gestural Performance in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders, Developmental Coordination Disorder, and/or Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder,” Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, Vol. 13, No. 2, 2007, pp. 246-256. doi:10.1017/S1355617707070270
S. Zoia, G. Pelamatti, M. Cuttini, V. Casotto and A. Scabar, “Performance of a Gesture in Children with and without DCD: Effect of Sensory Modalities,” Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, Vol. 44, No. 10, 2002, pp. 699-705. doi:10.1111/j.1469-8749.2002.tb00273.x
M. Iacoboni, R. P. Woods, M. Brass, H. Bekkering, J. C. Mazziotta and G. Rizzolatti, “Cortical Mechanisms of Imitation,” Science, Vol. 286, No. 5449, 1999, pp. 2526-2528. doi:10.1126/science.286.5449.2526
M. acoboni, “Neural Mechanisms of Imitation,” Current Opinion in Biology, Vol. 15, 2005, pp. 632-636.
G. Rizzolatti and L. Craighero, “The Mirror-Neuron System,” Annual Reviews Neuroscience, Vol. 27, 2004, pp. 169-192. doi:10.1146/annurev.neuro.27.070203.144230
M. Heiser, M. Iacoboni, F. Maeda, J. Marcus and J. C. Mazziotta, “The Essential Role of Broca’s Area in Imitation,” European Journal of Neuroscience, Vol. 17, No. 5, 2003, pp. 1123-1128. doi:10.1046/j.1460-9568.2003.02530.x
M. A. Arbib, “The Mirror Neuron System, Imitation, and the Evolution of Language,” In: K. Dautenhahn and C. L. Nehaniv, Eds., Imitation in Animals and Artifacts, The MIT Press, Cambridge, 2002, pp. 229-280.
G. Rizzolatti, L. Fogassi and V. Gallese, “Neurophysiological Mechanisms Underlying the Understanding and Imitation of Action,” Nature Reviews Neuroscience, Vol. 2, 2001, pp. 661-669. doi:10.1038/35090060
G. Rizzolatti, L. Fadiga, L. Fogassi and V. Gallese, “From Mirror Neurons to Imitation: Facts and Speculations,” In: A. N. Meltzoff and W. Prinz, Eds., The Imitative Mind, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2002, pp. 247-266. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511489969.015
G. Di Pellegrino, L. Fadiga, L. Fogassi and V. Gallese, “Understanding Motor Events: A Neuropsychological Study,” Experimental Brain Research, Vol. 91, 1992, pp. 176-180.
V. Gallese, L. Fadiga, L. Fogassi and G. Rizzolatti, “Action Recognition in the Pre-Motor Cortex,” Brain, Vol. 119, No. 2, 1996, pp. 593-609. doi:10.1093/brain/119.2.593
G. Rizzolatti, L. Fadiga, V. Gallese and L. Fogassi, “Pre-Motor Cortex and the Recognition of Motor Actions,” Cognitive Brain Research, Vol. 3, No. 2, 1996, pp. 131-141. doi:10.1016/0926-6410(95)00038-0
V. Gallese, L. Fadiga, L. Fogassi and G. Rizzolatti, “Action Representation and the Inferior Parietal Lobule,” Common Mechanisms in Perception and Action Attention and Performance, Vol. 19, 2002, pp. 247-266.
M. Petrides and D. N. Pandya, “Comparative Architectonic Analysis of the Human and the Macaque Frontal Cortex,” In: F. Boller and J. Grafman, Eds., Handbook of Neuropsychology, Vol. IX, Elsevier, New York, 1997, pp. 17-58.
G. Rizzolatti and M. Matelli, “Two Different Streams Form the Dorsal Visual System: Anatomy and Functions,” Experimental Brain Research, Vol. 153, No. 2, 2003, pp. 146-157. doi:10.1007/s00221-003-1588-0
G. Rizzolatti, “The Mirror Neuron System and Its Function in Humans,” Anatomy and Embroyology, Vol. 210, No. 5-6, 2005, pp. 419-421. doi:10.1007/s00429-005-0039-z
R. Mukamel, A. D. Ekstrom, J. Kaplan, M. Iacoboni and I. Fried, “Single-Neuron Responses in Humans during Execution and Observation of Actions,” Current Biology, Vol. 20, No. 3, 2010, pp. 1-7. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2010.02.045
D. Tkach, J. Reimer and N. G. Hatsopoulos, “Congruent Activity during Action and Action Observation in Motor Cortex,” Journal of Neuroscience, Vol. 27, No. 48, 2007, pp. 13241-13250. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2895-07.2007
M. Umilta, E. Kohler, V. Gallese, L. Fogassi, L. Fadiga, C. Keysers and G. Rizzolatti, “I Know What You Are Doing: A Neurophysiological Study,” Neuron, Vol. 31, No. 1, 2001, pp. 155-165. doi:10.1016/S0896-6273(01)00337-3
C. Keysers, E. Kohler, M. A. Umilta, L. Nanetti, L. Fogassi and V. Gallese, “Audiovisual Mirror Neurons and Action Recognition,” Experimental Brain Research, Vol. 153, No. 4, 2003, pp. 628-636. doi:10.1007/s00221-003-1603-5
E. Kohler, C. Keysers, M. A. Umilta, L. Fogassi, V. Gallese and G. Rizzolatti, “Hearing Sounds, Understanding Actions: Action Representation in Mirror Neurons,” Science, Vol. 297, No. 5582, 2002, pp. 846-848. doi:10.1126/science.1070311
P. F. Ferrari, S. Rozzi and L. Fogassi, “Mirror Neurons Responding to Observation of Actions Made with Tools in Monkey Ventral Premotor Cortex,” Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, Vol. 17, No. 2, 2005, pp. 212-226. doi:10.1162/0898929053124910
F. Subiaul, J. F. Cantlon, R. L. Holloway and H. S. Terrace, “Cognitive Imitation in Rhesus Macaques,” Science, Vol. 305, No. 5682, 2004, pp. 407-410. doi:10.1126/science.1099136
E. Visalberghi and D. Fragaszy, “Do Monkeys Ape?— Ten Years After,” In: K. Dautenhahn and C. L. Nehaniv, Eds., Imitation in Animals and Artifacts, The MIT Press, Cambridge, 2002, pp. 471-500.
B. Voelkl and L. Huber, “True Imitation in Marmosets,” Animal Behavior, Vol. 60, No. 2, 2000, pp. 195-202. doi:10.1006/anbe.2000.1457
A. Whiten, “Imitation of Sequential and Hierarchical Structure in Action: Experimental Studies with Children and Chimpanzees,” In: K. Dautenhahn and C. L. Nehaniv, Eds., Imitation in Animals and Artifacts, The MIT Press, Cambridge, 2002, pp. 191-210.
A. Whiten and R. Ham, “On the Nature and Evolution of Imitation in the Animal Kingdom: Reappraisal of a Century of Research,” Advances in the Study of Behavior, Vol. 21, 1992, pp. 239-283. doi:10.1016/S0065-3454(08)60146-1
G. Buccino, F. Binkofski, G. R. Fink, L. Fadiga, L. Fogassi, V. Gallese, H.-J. Freund, “Action Observation Activates Premotor and Parietal Areas in a Somatotopic Manner: An fMRI Study,” European Journal of Neuroscience, Vol. 13, 2001, pp. 400-404.
P. L. Jackson, A. N. Meltzoff and J. Decety, “Neural Circuits Involved in Imitation and Perspective-Taking,” Neuroimage, Vol. 31, No. 1, 2006, pp. 429-439. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2005.11.026
L. Koski, M. Iacoboni, M.-C. Dubeau, R. P. Woods and J. C. Mazziotta, “Modulation of Cortical Activity during Different Imitative Behaviors,” Journal of Neurophysiology, Vol. 89, No. 1, 2003, pp. 460-471. doi:10.1152/jn.00248.2002
G. Buccino, S. Vogt, A. Ritzl, G. R. Fink, K. Zilles, H.-J. Freund and G. Rizzolatti, “Neural Circuits Underlying Imitation Learning of Hand Actions: An Event-Related fMRI Study,” Neuron, Vol. 42, No. 2, 2004, pp. 323-334. doi:10.1016/S0896-6273(04)00181-3
E. Kohler, C. Keysers, M. A. Umilta, L. Fogassi, V. Gallese and G. Rizzolatti, “Hearing Sounds, Understanding Actions: Action Representation in Mirror Neurons,” Science, Vol. 297, No. 5582, 2002, pp. 846-848. doi:10.1126/science.1070311
N. Nishitani and R. Hari, “Temporal Dynamics of Cortical Representation for Action,” Proceedings of the National Academies of Sciences of the United States of America, Vol. 97, No. 2, 2000, pp. 913-918. doi:10.1073/pnas.97.2.913
I. Molnar-Szakacs, M. Iacoboni, L. Koski, and J. C. Mazziotta, “Functional Segregation within Pars Opercularis of the Inferior Frontal Gyrus: Evidence from fMRI Studies of Imitation and Action Observation,” Cerebral Cortex, Vol. 15, No. 7, 2005, pp. 986-994. doi:10.1093/cercor/bhh199
M. Dapretto, M. S. Davies, J. H. Pfeifer, A. A. Scott, M. Sigman, S. Y. Bookheimer and M. Iacoboni, “Understanding Emotions in Others: Mirror Neuron Dysfunction in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders,” Nature Neuroscience, Vol. 9, No. 1, 2006, pp. 28-30. doi:10.1038/nn1611
J. Martineau, S. Cochin, R. Magne and C. Barthelemy, “Impaired Cortical Activation in Autistic Children: Is the Mirror Neuron System Involved?” International Journal of Psychophysiology, Vol. 68, No. 1, 2008, pp. 35-40. doi:10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2008.01.002
N. Nishitani, S. Avikainen and R. Hari, “Abnormal Imitation-Related Cortical Activation Sequences in Asperger’s Syndrome,” Annals of Neurology, Vol. 55, No. 4, 2004, pp. 558-562. doi:10.1002/ana.20031
L. M. Oberman, E. M. Hubbard, J. P. McCleery, E. L. Altschuler, V. S. Ramachandran and J. A. Pineda, “EEG Evidence for Mirror Neuron Dysfunction in Autism Spectrum Disorders,” Cognitive Brain Research, Vol. 24, No. 2, 2005, pp. 190-198. doi:10.1016/j.cogbrainres.2005.01.014
H. Théoret, E. Halligan, M. Kobayashi, F. Fregni, H. Tager-Flusberg and A. Pascual-Leone, “Impaired Motor Facilitation during Action Observation in Individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorders,” Current Biology, Vol. 15, No. 3, 2005, pp. R84-R85. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2005.01.022
J. F. Lepage and H. Théoret, “The Mirror Neuron System: Grasping Others’ Actions from Birth?” Developmental Science, Vol. 10, No. 5, 2007, pp. 513-523. doi:10.1111/j.1467-7687.2007.00631.x
T. Chaminade, A. N. Meltzoff and J. Decety, “Does the End Justify the Means? A PET Exploration of the Mechanisms Involved in Human Imitation,” Neuroimage, Vol. 15, No. 2, 2002, pp. 318-328. doi:10.1006/nimg.2001.0981
T. Chaminade, A. N. Meltzoff and J. Decety, “An fMRI Study of Imitation: Action Representation and Body Schema,” Neuropsychologia, Vol. 43, No. 1, 2005, pp. 115-127. doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2004.04.026
J. Decety, T. Chaminade, J. Grezes and A. N. Meltzoff, “A PET Exploration of the Neural Mechanisms Involved in Reciprocal Imitation,” Neuroimage, Vol. 15, No. 1, 2002, pp. 265-272. doi:10.1006/nimg.2001.0938
J. Jellema, C. I. Baker, B. Wicker and D. I, Perrett, “Neural Representation for the Perception of the Intentionality of Actions,” Brain and Cognition, Vol. 44, 2000, pp. 280-302. doi:10.1006/brcg.2000.1231
D. I. Perrett, M. H. Harries, R. Bevan, S. Thomas, P. J. Benson, A. J. Mistlin and J. E. Ortega, “Frameworks of Analysis for the Neural Representation of Animate Objects and Actions,” Journal of Experimental Biology, Vol. 146, 1989, pp. 87-113.
M. Catani, D. K. Jones, and D. H. Ffytche, “Perisylvian Language Networks of the Human Brain,” Annals of Neurology, Vol. 57, No. 1, 2004, pp. 8-16. doi:10.1002/ana.20319
L. Aziz-Zadeh, L. Koski, E. Zaidel, J. Mazziotta and M. Iacoboni, “Lateralization of the Human Mirror Neuron System,” The Journal of Neuroscience, Vol. 26, No. 11, 2006, pp. 2964-2970. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.2921-05.2006
P. K. Mutha, R. L. Sainberg and K. Y. Haaland, “Left Parietal Regions Are Critical for Adaptive Visuomotor Control,” Journal of Neuroscience, Vol. 31, No. 19, 2011, pp. 6972-6981. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.6432-10.2011
E. B. Torres, A. Raymer, L. J. G. Rothi, K. M. Heilman and H. Poizner, “Sensory-Spatial Transformations in the Left Posterior Parietal Cortex May Contribute to Reach Timing,” Journal of Neurophysiology, Vol. 104, No. 5, 2010, pp. 2375-2388. doi:10.1152/jn.00089.2010
G. Berlucchi and S. M. Aglioti, “The Body in the Brain: Neural Bases of Corporeal Awareness,” Trends in Neuroscience, Vol. 20, No. 12, 1997, pp. 560-564. doi:10.1016/S0166-2236(97)01136-3
A. Fotopoulou, A. Rudd, P. Holmes and M. Kopelman, “Self-Observation Reinstates Motor Awareness in Anosognosia for Hemiplegia,” Neuropsychologia, Vol. 47, No. 5, 2009, pp. 1256-1260. doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2009.01.018
L. Q. Uddin, I. Molnar-Szakacs, E. Zaidel and M. Iacoboni, “rTMS to the Right Inferior Parietal Lobule Disrupts Self—Other Discrimination,” Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, Vol. 1, No. 1, 2006, pp. 65-71. doi:10.1093/scan/nsl003
J. Decety and J. A. Sommerville, “Shared Representations between Self and Other: A Social Cognitive Neuroscience View,” Trends in Cognitive Sciences, Vol. 7, No. 12, 2003, pp. 527-533. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2003.10.004
L. Q. Uddin, M. Iacoboni, C. Lange and J. Keenan, “The Self and Social Cognition: The Role of Cortical Midline Structures and Mirror Neurons,” Trends in Cognitive Sciences, Vol. 11, No. 4, 2007, pp. 153-157. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2007.01.001
L. Q. Uddin, J. T. Kaplan, I. Molnar Szakacs, E. Zaidel and M. Iacoboni, “Self-Face Recognition Activates a Frontoparietal “Mirror” Network in the Right Hemisphere: An Event-Related fMRI Study,” Neuroimage, Vol. 25, No. 3, 2005, pp. 926-935. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2004.12.018
J. Nadel, “Imitation and Imitation Recognition: Functional Use in Preverbal Infants and Nonverbal Children with Autism,” In: A. N. Meltzoff and W. Prinz, Eds., The Imitative Mind, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2002, pp. 42-62. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511489969.003
M. K. Morris, “Developmental Dyspraxia,” In: L. J. G. Rothi and K. M. Heilman, Eds., Apraxia: The Neuropsychology of Action, Psychology Press, New York, 1997, pp. 245-268.
J. G. Zwicker, C. Missiuna, and L. A. Boyd, “Neural Correlates of Developmental Coordination Disorder: A Review of Hypotheses,” Journal of Child Neurology, Vol. 24, No. 10, 2009, pp. 1273-1281. doi:10.1177/0883073809333537
J. G. Zwicker, C. Missiuna, S. R. Harris and L. A. Boyd, “Brain Activation of Children with Developmental Coordination Disorder Is Different than Peers,” Pediatrics, Vol. 126, 2010, pp. e678-e686. doi:10.1542/peds.2010-0059
J. G. Zwicker, C. Missiuna, S. R. Harris and L. A. Boyd, “Brain Activation Associated with Motor Skill Practice on Children with Developmental Coordination Disorder: An fMRI Study,” International Journal of Developmental Neuroscience, Vol. 29, No. 2, 2011, pp. 145-152. doi:10.1016/j.ijdevneu.2010.12.002
W. Prinz and A. N. Meltzoff, “An Introduction to the Imitative Mind and Brain,” In: A. N. Meltzoff and W. Prinz, Eds., The Imitative Mind, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2002, pp. 1-15. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511489969.001
E. S. Cross, A. F. de C. Hamilton and S. T. Grafton, “Building a Motor Simulation De Novo: Observation of Dance by Dancers,” Neuroimage, Vol. 31, No. 3, 2006, pp. 1257-1267. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2006.01.033
E. S. Cross, D. J. M Kraemer, A. F. de C. Hamilton, W. M. Kelley and S. T. Grafton, “Sensitivity of the Action Observation Network to Physical and Observational Learning,” Cerebral Cortex, Vol. 19, 2009, pp. 315-326. doi:10.1093/cercor/bhn083
V. Gallese, “The ‘Shared Manifold’ Hypothesis: From Mirror Neurons to Empathy,” Journal of Consciousness Studies, Vol. 8, No. 5-7, 2001, pp. 33-50.
V. Gallese, C. Keysers and G. Rizzolatti, “A Unifying View of the Basis of Social Cognition,” Trends in Cognitive Science, Vol. 8, 2004, pp. 396-403. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2004.07.002
M. Iacoboni, “Imitation, Empathy, and Mirror Neurons,” Annual Review of Psychology, Vol. 60, 2009, pp. 653-670. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.60.110707.163604
M. H. Davis, “Measuring Individual Differences in Empathy: Evidence for a Multidimensional Approach,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, Vol. 44, No. 1, 1983, pp. 113-126. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.44.1.113
L. Aziz-Zadeh, T. Sheng and A. Gheytanchi, “Common Premotor Regions for the Perception and Production of Prosody and Correlations with Empathy and Prosodic Ability,” PLoS One, Vol. 5, 2010, p. e8759. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0008759
L. Carr, M. Iacoboni, M.-C. Dubeau, J. C. Mazziotta and G. L. Lenzi, “Neural Mechanisms of Empathy in Humans: A Relay from Neural Systems for Imitation to Limbic Areas,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, Vol. 100, No. 9, 2003, pp. 5497-5502. doi:10.1073/pnas.0935845100
V. Gazzola, L. Aziz-Zadeh and C. Keysers, “Empathy and the Somatotopic Auditory Mirror Neuron System in Humans,” Current Biology, Vol. 16, No. 18, 2006, pp. 1824-1829. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2006.07.072
J. T. Kaplan and M. Iacoboni, “Getting a Grip on Other Minds: Mirror Neurons, Intention Understanding, and Cognitive Empathy,” Social Neuroscience, Vol. 1, No. 3-4, 2006, pp. 175-183. doi:10.1080/17470910600985605
C. Lamm, C. D. Batson and J. Decety, “The Neural Substrate of Human Empathy: Effects of Perspective-Taking and Cognitive Appraisal,” Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, Vol. 19, No. 1, 2007, pp. 42-58. doi:10.1162/jocn.2007.19.1.42
J. H. Pfeifer, M. Iacoboni, J. C. Mazziotta and M. Dapretto, “Mirroring Others’ Emotions Relates to Empathy and Interpersonal Competence in Children,” Neuroimage, Vol. 39, No. 4, 2008, pp. 2076-2085. doi:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2007.10.032
M. Schulte-Ruther, H. J. Markowitsch, G. R. Fink and M. Piefke, “Mirror Neuron and Theory of Mind Mechanisms Involved in Face-to-Face Interactions: A Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging Approach to Empathy,” Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, Vol. 19, No. 8, 2007, pp. 1354-1372. doi:10.1162/jocn.2007.19.8.1354
M. Dapretto, M. S. Davies, J. H. Pfeifer, A. A. Scott, M. Sigman, S. Y. Bookheimer and M. Iacoboni, “Understanding Emotions in Others: Mirror Neuron Dysfunction in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders,” Nature Neuroscience, Vol. 9, No. 1, 2006, pp. 28-30. doi:10.1038/nn1611
S. H. Mostofsky, P. Dubey, V. K. Jerath, E. M. Jansiewicz, M. C. Goldberg and M. B. Denckla, “Developmental Dyspraxia Is Not Limited to Imitation in Children With Autism Spectrum Disorders,” Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, Vol. 12, No. 3, 2006, pp. 314-326. doi:10.1017/S1355617706060437
S. J. Rogers, S. L. Hepburn, T. Stackhouse and E. Wehner, “Imitation Performance in Toddlers with Autism and Those with Other Developmental Disorders,” Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, Vol. 44, No. 5, 2003, pp. 763-781. doi:10.1111/1469-7610.00162
I. M. Smith and S. E. Bryson, “Imitation and Action in Autism: A Critical Review,” Psychological Bulletin, Vol. 116, No. 2, 1994, pp. 259-273. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.116.2.259
J. M. Werner, L. Aziz-Zadeh and S. A. Cermak, “Praxis and Imitation in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder,” NDTA Network, Vol. 18, 2011, pp. 10-15.
J. H. G. Williams, A. Whiten and T. Singh, “A Systematic Review of Action Imitation in Autistic Spectrum Disorder,” Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, Vol. 34, No. 3, 2004, pp. 285-299. doi:10.1023/B:JADD.0000029551.56735.3a
J. H. G. Williams, G. D. Waiter, A. Gilchrist, D. I. Perrett, A. D. Murray and A. Whiten, “Neural Mechanisms of imitation and ‘Mirror Neuron’ Functioning in Autistic Spectrum Disorder,” Neuropsychologia, Vol. 44, No. 4, 2006, pp. 610-621. doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2005.06.010
H.-F. Chen and E. S. Cohn, “Social Participation for Children with Developmental Coordination Disorder: Conceptual, Evaluation and Intervention Considerations,” Physical and Occupational Therapy in Pediatrics, Vol. 23, No. 4, 2003, pp. 61-78. doi:10.1080/J006v23n04_05
Y. W. Chen, M. H. Tseng, F. C. Hu and S. A. Cermak, “Psychosocial Adjustment and Attention in Children with Developmental Coordination Disorder Using Different Motor Tasks,” Research in Developmental Disabilities, Vol. 30, No. 6, 2009, pp. 1367-1377. doi:10.1016/j.ridd.2009.06.004
A. Cummins, J. P. Piek and M. J. Dyck, “Motor Coordination, Empathy, and Social Behavior in School-Aged Children,” Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, Vol. 47, 2005, pp. 437-442. doi:10.1017/S001216220500085X
D. Dewey, B. J. Kaplan, S. G. Crawford, and B. N. Wilson, “Developmental Coordination Disorder: Associated Problems in Attention, Learning, and Psychosocial Adjustment,” Human Movement Science, Vol. 21, No. 5-6, 2002, pp. 905-918. doi:10.1016/S0167-9457(02)00163-X
B. Kaplan, S. Crawford, M. Cantell, L. Kooistra, and D. Dewey, “Comorbidity, Co-Occurrence, Continuum: What’s in a Name?” Child: Care, Health and Development, Vol. 32, No. 6, 2006, pp. 723-731. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2214.2006.00689.x
R. A. Skinner and J. P. Piek, “Psychosocial Implications of Poor Motor Coordination in Children and Adolescents,” Human Movement Science, Vol. 20, No. 1-2, 2001, pp.73-94. doi:10.1016/S0167-9457(01)00029-X
J. Visser, “Developmental Coordination Disorder: A Review of Research on Subtypes and Comorbidities,” Human Movement Science, Vol. 22, No. 4-5, 2003, pp. 479-493. doi:10.1016/j.humov.2003.09.005
M. Kashiwagi, S. Iwaki, Y. Narumi, H. Tamai, and S. Suzuki, “Parietal Dysfunction in Developmental Coordination Disorder: A Functional MRI Study,” Brain Imaging, Vol. 20, No. 15, 2009, pp. 1319-1324.
L. Querne, P. Berquin, M.-P. Vernier-Hauvette, S. Fall, L. Deltour, M.-E. Meyer and G. de Marco, “Dysfunction of the Attentional Brain Network in Children with Developmental Coordination Disorder: A fMRI Study,” Brain Research, Vol. 1244, 2008, pp. 89-102. doi:10.1016/j.brainres.2008.07.066
S. E. Henderson and D. A. Sugden, “The Movement Assessment Battery for Children,” Harcourt, London, 1992.