A clear relationship between dose of radiation and mortality in humans is still not known because of lack of human data that would enable to determine human tolerance in total body irradiation. Human data for analysis have been primarily from radiation accidents, radiotherapy and the atomic bomb victims. A general formula that predicts mortality probability as a function of dose rate and duration of exposure to acute high dose ionizing radiation in humans was published by the author, applying the “probacent” model to the reported data on animal-model-predicted dose versus mortality. In this study, the “probacent” model is applied to the data on dose versus cancer mortality risk, published by the United Nations (UNSCEAR, 2010) and other investigators to construct general formulas expressing a relationship between dose and solid cancer or leukemia mortality probability after exposure to acute low dose ionizing radiation in humans. There is a remarkable agreement between formula-derived and published values of dose and solid cancer or leukemia mortality probability ( p > 0.99). The general formula might be helpful in preventing radiation hazard and injury in acute low dose ionizing radiation, and for safety in radiotherapy.
KeywordsAcute Low Dose RadiationRadiation-Induced Cancer MortalityFormula of Cancer MortalityFormula of Leukemia MortalitySafety in RadiotherapyRadiation Hazard and Injury
Cerveny, T.J., MacVittie, T.J. and Young, R.W. (1989) Acute radiation syndrome in humans. In: Walker, R.I. and Cerveny, T.J., Eds., Medical Consequences of Nuclear Warfare, TMM Publications, Office of the Surgeon General, Falls Church, 15-36.
Jones, T.J., Morris, M.D., Wells, S.M. and Young, R.W. (1986) Animal mortality resulting from uniform exposures to photon radiations: Calculated LD50 and a compilation of experimental data. Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee. doi:10.2172/6940829
Nénot, J. (2009) Radiation accidents over the last 60 years. Journal of Radiological Protection, 29, 301-320. doi:10.1088/0952-4746/29/3/R01
Abrahamson, S. Bender, M.A., Boecker, R.B., et al. (1993) Health effect models for nuclear power plant accident consequence analysis. US Government Printing Office, Washington, DC.
Donnelly, E.H., Nemhauser, J.B., SMITH, M., et al. (2010) Acute radiation syndrome: Assessment and management. Southern Medical Journal, 103, 541-544. doi:10.1097/SMJ.0b013e3181ddd571
Department of Radiology, University of Illinois (1990) Acute effects of whole body irradiation: Lesson from Chernobyl. http://www.uic.edu/com/uhrd/manuscript/section4/section4.html
Baverstock, K.F., Ash, P.J.D. (1983) A review of radiation accidents involving whole body exposure and the relevance to the LD50/60 for man. British Journal of Radiology, 56, 837-849. doi:10.1259/0007-1285-56-671-837
Van Middlesworth, L. (1989) World wide iodine fallout in animal thyroid, 1954-1987. In: Ashizawa, A., Yamashita, S. and Nagataki, S., Eds., Radiation and the Thyroid, Excerpta Medica, Amsterdam, 36-56.
Van Middlesworth, L. (1989) Effects of radiation on the thyroid gland. Advanced Internal Medicine, 34, 265-284.
Simon, S.L., Bouville, A. and Land, C.E. (2006) Fallout from nuclear weapon tests and cancer risks. American Scientist, 94, 48-57. doi:10.1511/2006.1.48
Sacher, G.A. (1960) On the relation of radiation lethality to radiation injury and its relevance for the prediction problem. 19th International Congress of Radiology, 23-30 July 1959, 1223-1232.
Travis, E.L., Peters, L.G., Thames, H.D., et al. (1985) Effects of dose-rate on the total body irradiation: Lethality and pathologic findings. Radiology and Oncology, 4, 341-151. doi:10.1016/S0167-8140(85)80122-5
Chung, S.J. (1995) Formula expressing life expectancy, survival probability or death rate in life table at various ages in US adults. International Journal of Biomedical Computing, 39, 209-217. doi:10.1016/0020-7101(94)01068-C
Chung, S.J. (2011) Predictive formulas expressing relationship among dose rate, duration of exposure and mortality probability in total body irradiation in humans. Journal of Biomedical Science and Engineering, 4, 497- 505. doi:10.4236/jbise.2011.47063 http://www.scirp.org/journal/Paperinformation.aspx?ID=6427
Chung, S.J. (2007) Computer-assisted predictive formulas expressing survival probability and life expectancy in US adults, men and women, 2001. Computer Methods and Programs in Biomedicine, 86, 197-209. doi:10.1016/j.cmpb.2007.02.009
Chung, S.J. (2011) predictive formulas expressing relationship between dose rate and survival time in total body irradiation in mice. Journal of Biomedical Science and Engineering, 4, 707-718. doi:10.4236/jbise.2011.411088 http://www.scirp.org/journal/Paperinformation.aspx?paperID=8523
Chung S.J. (1960) Studies on a mathematical relationship between stress and response in biological phenomena. Republic of Korea Journal of the National Academy of Sciences, 2, 115-162.
Chung, S.J. (1986) Computer-assisted predictive formulas expressing among metrazol dose and time and mortality in mice. Computer Methods and Programs in Bio-medicine, 22, 275-284. doi:10.1016/0169-2607(86)90004-0
United Nations (2011) Report of the United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation 2010 (UNSCEAR 2010). United Nations, New York. http://uscear.org/unscear/about_us/sessions.html
Wall, B.F., Kendall, G.M., Edwards, A.A., Bouffler, S., Muirhead, C.R. and Meara, J.R. (2006) What are the risks from medical X-rays and other low dose radiation? British Journal of Radiology, 79, 285-284. doi:10.1259/bjr/55733882
Chung, S.J. (1959) Studies of positive radial acceleration on mice. Journal of Applied Physiology, 14, 52-54.
Boak, H. and Chung, S.J. (1962) Studies on a relationship between dose, time and percentage of occurrence of response and a method of evaluation of combined action in drugs. The New Medical Journal, 5, 35-82.
Kim, C.C. and Chung, S.J. (1962) Studies on a relationship between stress, duration of exposure and percentage of response in goldfish to single, double, and triple stresses of acceleration, electroshock, heat, chemical and osmotic stimuli. Republic of Korea Theses of Catholic Medical College, 5, 257-336.
Cho, D.W. and Chung, S.J. (1961) Studies of tolerance of Paramecium caudatum to hydroxyl ions. Journal of Yamaguchi Medical School, 8, 151-160.
Chung, S.J. (1989) Computer-assisted mathematical relationship among electroshock voltage and duration of exposure and occurrence of convulsion in mice. Computer Methods and Programs in Biomedicine, 28, 23-30. doi:10.1016/0169-2607(89)90177-6
Forbes, W.H., Sergent, F. and Roughton, F.J.W. (1988) The risk of carbon monoxide uptake by normal men. American Journal of Physiology, 143, 594-608.
Chung, S.J. (1988) Formula predicting carboxyhemoglobin resulting from carbo monoxide exposure. Veterinary and Human Toxicology, 30, 528-532.
Forbes, L.F., Roscoe, P., Wright, N. and Brown, S.S. (1991) Plasmaparacetamol half-life and hepatic necrosis in patients with paracetamoloverdosage. Lancet, 1, 519-522.
Chung, S.J. (1989) Computer-assisted predictive mathematical relationship among plasma acetaminophen concentration, time after ingestion and occurrence of hepatotoxicity in man. Computer Methods and Programs in Biomedicine, 28, 37-43. doi:10.1016/0169-2607(89)90179-X
Chung, S.J. (1993) Formula predicting survival probability in patients with heart transplantation. International Journal of Biomedical Computing, 32, 211-221. doi:10.1016/0020-7101(93)90015-X
Chung, S.J. (1991) Formula predicting survival in patients with invasive malignant melanoma. International Journal of Biomedical Computing, 28, 37-43. doi:10.1016/0020-7101(91)90051-F
Chung, S.J. (1991) Formula predicting survival probability in patients with acute myelogenous leukemia. International Journal of Biomedical Computing, 29, 283-293. doi:10.1016/0020-7101(91)90045-G
Chung, S.J. (1994) Formulas expressing relationship among age, height and weight and percentile in Saudi and US children of age 6-16 years. International Journal of Biomedical Computing, 37, 259-272. doi:10.1016/0020-7101(94)90124-4
Chung, S.J. (1990) Formulas predicting the percentiles of heart weight by body weight in subjects from birth to 19 years of age. International Journal of Biomedical Computing, 26, 257-269. doi:10.1016/0020-7101(90)90049-Z
Chung, S.J. (1990) Formulas predicting the percentiles of serum cholesterol levels by age in adults. Archives of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, 114, 869-895.
Arias, E. (2004) United States life tables, 2001.National Vital Statistics Report, 52, 1-40.
Chung, S.J. (1997) Comprehensive life tables of computer-assisted predictive mathematical relationship among age and life expectancy, survival probability or death rate in US adults. Computer Methods and Programs in Bio-medicine, 52, 67-73. doi:10.1016/S0169-2607(96)01778-6
Mehta, S.C. and Joshi, H.C. (2004) Model based point estimates of survival/death rates: An input for radiation risk estimation in Indian context. Indian Journal of Nuclear Medicine, 19, 16-18.
United Nations (2008) Report of the United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation 2006 (UNSCEAR 2006), Vol. 1 (Annex A, Tables 59 and 65). United Nations, New York. http://www.unscear.org/unscear/en/publications/2006_1.html
Brenner, D.J., Doll, R., Goodhead, D.T., Hall, E.J. Land, C.E., Little, J.R., Lubing, H.J., Preston, D.L., Preston, R.J., Puskin, R.J., Ron, E., Sachs, R.K., Samet, J.M., Setlow, R.B. and Zaide, M. (2003) Cancer risks attributable to low doses of ionizing radiation: Assessing what we really know. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 25, 13761-13766. http://www.pnas.org/content/100/24/13761
Yu, L., Liu, X., Leng, S., Kofler, J.M., Ramierez-Giraldo, J.C., Qu, M., Christener, J., Fletcher, J.G. and Mc-Collough C.H. (2009) Radiation dose reduction in computed tomography: Techniques and future perspective. Imaging Medicine, 1, 65-84. doi:10.2217/iim.09.5
Chung, S.J. (2009) Seeking a new world: A new philosophy of Confucius and Kim Hang. iUniverse, Inc., Bloomington, 68-76, 153.
Chung S.J. (2011) Computer program of nonlinear, curved regression for “probacent”-probability equation in biomedicine. Journal of Biomedical Science and Engineering, 4, 620-630. doi:10.4236/jbise.2011.49078 http://www.scirp.org/journal/Paperinformation.aspx?paperID=7676
Dixon, W.J. and Massey Jr., F.S. (1957) Test for goodness-of-fit. Introduction to Statistical Analysis. McGraw-Hill, New York, 226-227.
International Atomic Energy Agency (1995) Potential exposure in nuclear safety. INSAG-9. http://www.pub.lae.ORG/MTCD/Publications/PDF/Pub992e_web.pdf
Laurier, D. (2000) Clusters of leukemia among young people living near nuclear site, with a focus on studies performed in the nordcotentin (France). http://ec.europa.eu/enery/nuclear/radiation_protection/doc/pulication/125-pdf
Chung, S.J. (2010) The book of right change, JeongYeok: A new philosophy of Asia. iUniverse, Inc., Bloomington, 10.
Hawking, S.W. (1988) A brief history of time. Bantam Books, New York, 31-32, 53-61.
Suplee, C. (1999) Physics in the 20th century. Hany N. Abrams, Inc., New York, 82.
Cui, Y., Yang, G., Fan, T., et al. (2002) Optimal protocol for total body irradiation for allogeneic bone marrow transplantation in mice. Bone Marrow Transplantation, 30, 843-849. doi:10.1038/sj.bmt.1703766