A Literature Review in Immuno-Oncology: Pathophysiological and Clinical Features of Colorectal Cancer and the Role of the Doctor-Patient Interaction — Oak Academic Publishing
Research ArticleOpen AccessGoogle Scholar indexed
A Literature Review in Immuno-Oncology: Pathophysiological and Clinical Features of Colorectal Cancer and the Role of the Doctor-Patient Interaction
This review is intended to describe the features of colorectal cancer both in terms of pathophysiology and clinical features of the pathology. It also describes the anatomical and clinical features of different primary tumor locations in colorectal cancer. It is also to note how relevant it is to identify rectal cancer and colon cancer as different pathologies due to the clinical, pathophysiological and immuno-oncological features of rectal cancer compared to the ones of colon cancer while remarking the importance of medical doctors in the interac tion with oncological patients . Background : Colorectal Cancer (CRC) is a major public health problem, representing the third most commonly diagn osed cancer in males and the second in females and it is fundamental to note and discuss doctor-patient interaction, fundamental for proper adherence and psychological status of the oncological patient, when discussing such important and impactful pathologies. Conclusions : This review highlights the possibility of an update in the terminology of Colorectal Cancer (CRC) into different clinically relevant pathologies within the umbrella term colorectal cancer (for instance rectal and colon cancer as different tumors). It also remarks on the importance of medical doctors in the interaction with oncological patients.
Tan, S.C. (2018) Low Penetrance Genetic Polymorphisms as Potential Biomarkers for Colorectal Cancer Predisposition. The Journal of Gene Medicine, 20, e3010. https://doi.org/10.1002/jgm.3010
Yan, W.-F., Wu, G., Sun, P.-C. and Qiu, D. (2015) p53 Mutations Occur More Commonly than KRAS Mutations in Colorectal Adenoma. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, 8, 1370-1375.
Baker, S.J., Preisinger, A.C., Jessup, J.M., et al. (1990) p53 Gene Mutations Occur in Combination with 17p Allelic Deletions as Late Events in Colorectal Tumorigenesis. Cancer Research, 50, 7717-7722.
Bennett, M.J. (1986) A Developmental Approach to Training for Intercultural Sensitivity. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 10, 179-196. https://doi.org/10.1016/0147-1767(86)90005-2
Bennett, M.J. (1993) Towards Ethnorelativism: A Developmental Model of Intercultural Sensitivity. In Paige, R.M., Ed., Education for the Intercultural Experience, Intercultural Press, Yarmouth, ME, 21-71.
Pino, M.S. and Chung, D.C. (2010) The Chromosomal Instability Pathway in Colon Cancer. Gastroenterology, 138, 2059-2072. https://doi.org/10.1053/j.gastro.2009.12.065
Vogelstein, B., Fearon, E.R., Hamilton, S.R., et al. (1988) Genetic Alterations during Colorectal-Tumor Development. The New England Journal of Medicine, 319, 525-532. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJM198809013190901
Konishi, F. and Morson, B. (1982) Pathology of Colorectal Adenomas: A Colonoscopic Survey. Journal of Clinical Pathology, 35, 830-841. https://doi.org/10.1136/jcp.35.8.830
Konishi, K., et al. (1999) Clinicopathological Differences between Colonic and Rectal Carcinomas: Are They Based on the Same Mechanism of Carcinogenesis? Gut, 45, 818-821. https://doi.org/10.1136/gut.45.6.818
Nakashima, J. and Zulfiqar, H. (2022) Embryology, Rectum and Anal Canal. StatPearls Publishing, Treasure Island. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK551682
Hicks, A.M., Riedlinger, G., Willingham, M.C., et al. (2006) Transferable Anticancer Innate Immunity in Spontaneous Regression/Complete Resistance Mice. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 103, 7753-7758. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0602382103
Yeatman, T.J. (2003) Colon Cancer. https://doi.org/10.1038/npg.els.0001891
Mizuno, R., et al. (2019) The Role of Tumor-Associated Neutrophils in Colorectal Cancer. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 20, Article No. 529. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms20030529
De Heer, P., et al. (2007) Caspase-3 Activity Predicts Local Recurrence in Rectal Cancer. Clinical Cancer Research, 13, 5810-5815. https://doi.org/10.1158/1078-0432.CCR-07-0343
Giovannucci, N.K. (2019) Global Burden of Colorectal Cancer: Emerging Trends, Risk Factors and Prevention Strategies. Nature Reviews Gastroenterology & Hepatology, 16, 713-732. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41575-019-0189-8
Araghi, M., et al. (2019) Global Trends in Colorectal Cancer Mortality: Projections to the Year 2035. International Journal of Cancer, 144, 2992-3000. https://doi.org/10.1002/ijc.32055
Frantz, C., Stewart, K.M. and Weaver, V.M. (2010) The Extracellular Matrix at a Glance. Journal of Cell Science, 123, 4195-4200. https://doi.org/10.1242/jcs.023820
Sjo, O.H., Larsen, S., Lunde, O.C. and Nesbakken, A. (2009) Short-Term Outcome after Emergency and Elective Surgery for Colon Cancer. Colorectal Disease, 11, 733-739. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1463-1318.2008.01613.x
Toms, J.R. (2004) CancerStats Monograph 2004. Cancer Research UK, London.
Vargas, A.J. and Thompson, P.A. (2012) Diet and Nutrient Factors in Colorectal Cancer Risk. Nutrition in Clinical Practice, 27, 613-623. https://doi.org/10.1177/0884533612454885
Gill, S., Loprinzi, C.L., Sargent, D.J., et al. (2004) Pooled Analysis of Fluorouracil-Based Adjuvant Therapy for Stage II and III Colon Cancer: Who Benefits and by How Much? Journal of Clinical Oncology, 22, 1797-1806. https://doi.org/10.1200/JCO.2004.09.059
Cappell, M.S. (2005) From Colonic Polyps to Colon Cancer: Pathophysiology, Clinical Presentation, and Diagnosis. Clinics in Laboratory Medicine, 25, 135-177. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cll.2004.12.010
Rawla, P. (2019) Epidemiology of Colorectal Cancer: Incidence, Mortality, Survival, and Risk Factors. Przegląd Gastroenterologiczny, 14, 89-103. https://doi.org/10.5114/pg.2018.81072
Paschke, S. (2018) Are Colon and Rectal Cancer Two Different Tumor Entities? A Proposal to Abandon the Term Colorectal Cancer. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 19, Article No. 2577. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms19092577
Nakamura, N., et al. (2010) Mechanisms of Microbial Hydrogen Disposal in the Human Colon and Implications for Health and Disease. The Annual Review of Food Science and Technology, 1, 363-395. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.food.102308.124101
Braga, C., La Vecchia, C., Franceschi, S., et al. (1998) Olive Oil, Other Seasoning Fats, and the Risk of Colorectal Carcinoma. Cancer, 82, 448-453. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1097-0142(19980201)82:3 3.0.CO,2-L
Willett, W.C., Stampfer, M.J., Colditz, G.A., et al. (1990) Relation of Meat, Fat, and Fiber Intake to the Risk of Colon Cancer in a Prospective Study among Women. The New England Journal of Medicine, 323, 1664-1672. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJM199012133232404
Santarelli, R.L., Pierre, F. and Corpet, D.E. (2008) Processed Meat and Colorectal Cancer: A Review of Epidemiologic and Experimental Evidence. Nutrition and Cancer, 60, 131-144. https://doi.org/10.1080/01635580701684872
Fung, T.T. and Brown, L.S. (2013) Dietary Patterns and the Risk of Colorectal Cancer. Current Nutrition Reports, 2, 48-55. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13668-012-0031-1
Samad, A.K.A., Taylor, R.S., Marshall, T. and Chapman, M.A.S. (2005) A Meta-Analysis of the Association of Physical Activity with Reduced Risk of Colorectal Cancer. Colorectal Disease, 7, 204-213. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1463-1318.2005.00747.x
Moghaddam, A.A., Woodward, M. and Huxley, R. (2007) Obesity and Risk of Colorectal Cancer: A Meta-Analysis of 31 Studies with 70,000 Events. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention, 16, 2533-2547. https://doi.org/10.1158/1055-9965.EPI-07-0708
Lin, K.J., Cheung, W.Y., Lai, J.Y. and Giovannucci, E.L. (2012) The Effect of Estrogen vs. Combined Estrogen-Progestogen Therapy on the Risk of Colorectal Cancer. International Journal of Cancer, 130, 419-430. https://doi.org/10.1002/ijc.26026
Larsson, S.C., Orsini, N. and Wolk, A. (2005) Diabetes Mellitus and Risk of Colorectal Cancer: A Meta-Analysis. JNCI: Journal of the National Cancer Institute, 97, 1679-1687. https://doi.org/10.1093/jnci/dji375
Haggar, F.A. and Boushey, R.P. (2009) Colorectal Cancer Epidemiology: Incidence, Mortality, Survival, and Risk Factors. Clinics in Colon and Rectal Surgery, 22, 191-197. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0029-1242458
Botteri, E., Iodice, S., Bagnardi, V., et al. (2008) Smoking and Colorectal Cancer: A Meta-Analysis. JAMA, 300, 2765-2778. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2008.839
Moskal, A., Norat, T., Ferrari, P. and Riboli, E. (2007) Alcohol Intake and Colorectal Cancer Risk: A Dose-Response Meta-Analysis of Published Cohort Studies. International Journal of Cancer, 120, 664-671. https://doi.org/10.1002/ijc.22299
Toriola, A.T., Kurl, S., Laukanen, J.A., Mazengo, C. and Kauhanen, J. (2008) Alcohol Consumption and Risk of Colorectal Cancer: The Findrink Study. European Journal of Epidemiology, 23, 395-401. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10654-008-9244-4
Grodstein, F., Newcomb, P.A. and Stampfer, M.J. (1999) Postmenopausal Hormone Therapy and the Risk of Colorectal Cancer: A Review and Meta-Analysis. The American Journal of Medicine, 106, 574-582. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0002-9343(99)00063-7
Campagnoli, C., Abba, C., Ambroggio, S. and Peris, C. (2003) Differential Effects of Progestins on the Circulating IGF-I System. Maturitas, 46, S39-S44. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.maturitas.2003.09.017
Peleg, I.I., Maibach, H.T., Brown, S.H., et al. (1994) Aspirin and Nonsteroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drug Use and the Risk of Subsequent Colorectal Cancer. Archives of Internal Medicine, 154, 394-399. https://doi.org/10.1001/archinte.1994.00420040050009
Jasperson, K.W., Tuohy, T.M., Neklason, D.W. and Burt, R.W. (2010) Hereditary and Familial Colon Cancer. Gastroenterology, 138, 2044-2058. https://doi.org/10.1053/j.gastro.2010.01.054
Abulafi, A.M. and Williams, N.S. (1994) Local Recurrence of Colorectal Cancer: The Problem, Mechanisms, Management and Adjuvant Therapy. British Journal of Surgery, 81, 7-19. https://doi.org/10.1002/bjs.1800810106
Stewart, B.W. and Kleihues, P. (2003) World Cancer Report. IARC Press, Lyon.
Smoragiewicz, M., Javaheri, K.R., Yin, Y.L. and Gill, S. (2014) Neutropenia and Relative Dose Intensity on Adjuvant FOLFOX Chemotherapy Are Not Associated with Survival for Resected Colon Cancer. Journal of Gastrointestinal Cancer, 45, 460-465. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12029-014-9639-2
Schmoll, H.-J. (2012) ESMO Consensus Guidelines for Management of Patients with Colon and Rectal Cancer. A Personalized Approach to Clinical Decision Making. Annals of Oncology, 23, 2479-2516. https://doi.org/10.1093/annonc/mds236
Field, K., et al. (2017) Neoadjuvant Therapy for Rectal Cancer. In Clinical Practice Guidelines for the Prevention, Early Detection and Management of Colorectal Cancer Neoadjuvant Therapy for Rectal Cancer, Cancer Council Australia, Sydney.
Brown, S.R., et al. (2009) Adhesions and Incisional Hernias Following Laparoscopic versus Open Surgery for Colorectal Cancer in the CLASICC Trial. British Journal of Surgery, 97, 70-78.
Spinelli, A., David, G., Gidaro, S., et al. (2017) First Experience in Colorectal Surgery with a New Robotic Platform with Haptic Feedback. Colorectal Disease, 20, 228-235. https://doi.org/10.1111/codi.13882
Huang, C.-W., et al. (2015) Robotic Colorectal Surgery for Laparoscopic Surgeons with Limited Experience: Preliminary Experiences for 40 Consecutive Cases at a Single Medical Center. BMC Surgery, 15, Article No. 73. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12893-015-0057-6
Carrato, A. (2008) Adjuvant Treatment of Colorectal Cancer. Gastrointestinal Cancer Research, 2, S42-S46.
Pfeiffer, P., Gruenberger, T. and Glynne-Jones, R. (2018) Synchronous Liver Metastases in Patients with Rectal Cancer: Can We Establish Which Treatment First? Therapeutic Advances in Medical Oncology, 10, 1-10. https://doi.org/10.1177/1758835918787993
Colombo, M.P., Modesti, A., Parmiani, G. and Forni, G. (1992) Local Cytokine Availability Elicits Tumor Rejection and Systemic Immunity through Granulocyte-T-Lymphocyte Cross-Talk. Cancer Research, 52, 4853-4857.
Baran, B. (2018) Difference between Left-Sided and Right-Sided Colorectal Cancer: A Focused Review of Literature. Gastroenterology Research, 11, 264-273. https://doi.org/10.14740/gr1062w
Gray, H. (2013) Grays Anatomy. Arcturus Publishing, London.
Balkwill, F. (2001) Inflammation and Cancer: Back to Virchow? The Lancet, 357, 539-545. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(00)04046-0
Mittal, D., Gubin, M.M., Schreiber, R.D. and Smyth, M.J. (2014) New Insights into Cancer Immunoediting and Its Three Component Phases—Elimination, Equilibrium and Escape. Current Opinion in Immunology, 27, 16-25. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coi.2014.01.004
Riboli, E., Hunt, K.J., Slimani, N., et al. (2002) European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC): Study Populations and Data Collection. Public Health Nutrition, 5, 1113-1124. https://doi.org/10.1079/PHN2002394
Mantovani, A., et al. (2002) Macrophage Polarization: Tumor-Associated Macrophages as a Paradigm for Polarized M2 Mononuclear Phagocytes. Trends in Immunology, 11, 549-555. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1471-4906(02)02302-5
Schioppa, T., Moore, R., Thompson, R.G., Rosser, E.C., Kulbe, H., Nedospasov, S., Mauri, C., Coussens, L.M. and Balkwill, F.R. (2011) B Regulatory Cells and the Tumor-Promoting Actions of TNF-α during Squamous Carcinogenesis. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 108, 10662-10667. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1100994108
Foster, D.S., Jones, R.E., Ransom, R.C., et al. (2018) The Evolving Relationship of Wound Healing and Tumor Stroma. JCI Insight, 3, e99911.
Fridman, W.H., Pagès, F., Sautès-Fridman, C. and Galon, J. (2012) The Immune Contexture in Human Tumours: Impact on Clinical Outcome. Nature Reviews Cancer, 12, 298-306. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrc3245
Mauri, C. and Bosma, A. (2012) Immune Regulatory Function of B Cells. Annual Review of Immunology, 30, 221-241. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-immunol-020711-074934
Coronella, J. A., Telleman, P., Kingsbury, G.A., Truong, T.D., Hays, S. and Junghans, R.P. (2001) Evidence for an Antigen-Driven Humoral Immune Response in Medullary Ductal Breast Cancer. Cancer Research, 61, 7889-7899.
Qian, B.Z. and Pollard, J.W. (2010) Macrophage Diversity Enhances Tumor Progression and Metastasis. Cell, 141, 39-51. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2010.03.014
Mantovani, A. (2011) B Cells and Macrophages in Cancer: Yin and Yang. Nature Medicine, 17, 285-286. https://doi.org/10.1038/nm0311-285
Nozawa, H., Chiu, C. and Hanahan, D. (2006) Infiltrating Neutrophils Mediate the Initial Angiogenic Switch in a Mouse Model of Multistage Carcinogenesis. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 103, 12493-12498. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0601807103
Granot, Z., Henke, E., Comen, E.A., King, T.A., Norton, L. and Benezra, R. (2011) Tumor Entrained Neutrophils Inhibit Seeding in the Premetastatic Lung. Cancer Cell, 20, 300-314. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ccr.2011.08.012
Fridlender, Z.G. (2009) Polarization of Tumor-Associated Neutrophil (TAN) Phenotype by TGF-β: “N1” versus “N2” TAN. Cancer Cell, 16, 183-194. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ccr.2009.06.017
Brittan, M., Hunt, T., Jeffery, R., Poulsom, R., Forbes, S.J., Hodivala-Dilke, K., Goldman, J., Alison, M.R. and Wright, N.A. (2002) Bone Marrow Derivation of Pericryptal Myofibroblasts in the Mouse and Human Small Intestine and Colon. Gut, 50, 752-757. https://doi.org/10.1136/gut.50.6.752
Pagès, F., et al. (2018) International Validation of the Consensus Immunoscore for the Classification of Colon Cancer: A Prognostic and Accuracy Study. The Lancet, 391, 2128-2139.
Guo, G.F., et al. (2019) Immune Cell Concentrations among the Primary Tumor Microenvironment in Colorectal Cancer Patients Predicted by Clinicopathologic Characteristics and Blood Indexes. Journal for ImmunoTherapy of Cancer, 7, Article No. 179. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40425-019-0656-3
Dinapoli, M.R., Calderon, C.L. and Lopez, D.M. (1996) The Altered Tumoricidal Capacity of Macrophages Isolated from Tumor-Bearing Mice Is Related to Reduce Expression of the Inducible Nitric Oxide Synthase Gene. Journal of Experimental Medicine, 183, 1323-1329. https://doi.org/10.1084/jem.183.4.1323
Halama, J.N. (2019) Harnessing the Innate Immune System and Local Immunological Microenvironment to Treat Colorectal Cancer. British Journal of Cancer, 120, 871-882. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41416-019-0441-6
Witter, A.R., et al. (2016) The Essential Role of Neutrophils during Infection with the Intracellular Bacterial Pathogen Listeria monocytogenes. The Journal of Immunology, 197, 1557-1565. https://doi.org/10.4049/jimmunol.1600599
Shaul, M.E., et al. (2016) Tumor-Associated Neutrophils Display a Distinct N1 Profile Following TGFβ Modulation: A Transcriptomics Analysis of Pro- vs. Antitumor TANs. Oncoimmunology, 5, e1232221. https://doi.org/10.1080/2162402X.2016.1232221
Masucci, M.T., Minopoli, M. and Carriero, M.V. (2019) Tumor Associated Neutrophils. Their Role in Tumorigenesis, Metastasis, Prognosis and Therapy. Frontiers in Oncology, 9, Article No. 1146. https://doi.org/10.3389/fonc.2019.01146
Wang, X., et al. (2018) Understanding the Multifaceted Role of Neutrophils in Cancer and Autoimmune Diseases. Frontiers in Immunology, 9, Article No. 2456. https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2018.02456
Berry, R.S., et al. (2017) High Levels of Tumor-Associated Neutrophils Are Associated with Improved Overall Survival in Patients with Stage II Colorectal Cancer. PLOS ONE, 12, e0188799. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0188799
Hurtado, C.W. (n.d.) NASPGHAN Physiology Lecture Series Embryology of the GI Tract: (Slides 9-12).
Mantovani, A., et al. (2002) Macrophage Polarization: Tumor-Associated Macrophages as a Paradigm for Polarized M2 Mononuclear Phagocytes. Trends in Immunology, 23, 549-555. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1471-4906(02)02302-5