Introduction: We sought to explore iodine status (expressed as urine iodine excretion) in a group of women with a variety of breast diseases to characterize the relationship between iodine and breast physiology. Methods: Demographic and clinical data were recorded and random urine iodine levels were checked in 415 euthyroid patients over 5 years during clinic visits. Results: Pre menopausal women excreted less iodine in their urine than post menopausal women. Post menopausal women who took hormone supplementation had an excretion level similar to pre menopausal women. Women with breast cancer excreted less iodine than those without, and iodine excretion increased after treatment with aromatase inhibitors. Conclusions: These results demonstrate that there is a relationship between estrogen status and iodine excretion in euthyroid women. This suggests that there may be a threshold for total body iodine required for prevention of breast disease.
KeywordsBreast CancerIodineIodideEstrogen
B. A. Eskin, H. I. Jacobson, V. Bolmarich and J. A. Murray, “Breast Atypia in Altered Iodine States: Intracellular Changes,” Senologia, Vol. 2, 1977, pp. 61-65.
H. Funahashi, T. Imai, Y. Tanaka, et al., “Suppressive Effect of Iodine on DMBA-Induced Breast Tumor Growth in the Rat,” Journal of Surgical Oncology, Vol. 61, No. 3, 1996, pp. 209-213. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1096-9098(199603)61:3 3.0.CO;2-F
P. Garcia-Solis, Y. Alfaro, B. Anguiano, et al., “Inhibition of N-Methyl-N-Nitrosourea-Induced Mammary Carcinogenesis by Molecular Iodine (I2) but Not by Iodide (I-) Treatment Evidence That I2 Prevents Cancer Promotion,” Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology, Vol. 236, No. 1-2, 2005, pp. 49-57.
B. A. Eskin, R. Shuman, T. Krouse and J. A. Merion, “Rat Mammary Gland Atypia Produced by Iodine Blockade with Perchlorate,” Cancer Research, Vol. 35, 1975, pp. 2332-2339.
P. S. Yang, T. L. Yang, C. L. Liu, C. W. Wu and C. Y. Shen, “A Case-Control Study of Breast Cancer in Taiwan—A Low-Incidence Area,” British Journal of Cancer, Vol. 75, No. 5, 1997, pp. 752-756. doi:10.1038/bjc.1997.133
K. Brown-Grant, “The Iodide Concentrating Mechanism of the Mammary Gland,” Journal of Physiology, Vol. 135, No. 3, 1957, pp. 644-654.
O. I. Alatise and G.N. Schrauzer, “Lead Exposure: A Contributing Cause of the Current Breast Cancer Epidemic in Nigerian Women,” Biological Trace Element Research, Vol. 136, No. 2, 2010, pp. 127-139. doi:10.1007/s12011-010-8608-2
B. A. Eskin, S. A. Murphey and M. R. Dunn, “Induction of Breast Cancer in Altered Thyroid States,” Nature, Vol. 218, No. 5147, 1968, p. 1162. doi:10.1038/2181162a0
P. R. K. Bhargav, A. Mishra, G. Agarwal, A. Agarwal, A. K. Verma and S. K. Mishra, “Prevalence of Hypothyroidism in Benign Breast Disorders and Effect of Thyroxine Replacement on the Clinical Outcome,” World Journal of Surgery, Vol. 33, No. 10, 2009, pp. 2087-2093. doi:10.1007/s00268-009-0143-y
A. Vivacqua, D. Bonofiglio, L. Albanito, et al., “17betaEstradiol, Genistein, and 4-Hydroxytamoxifen Induce the Proliferation of Thyroid Cancer Cells through the g Protein-Coupled Receptor GPR30,” Molecular Pharmacology, Vol. 70, 2006, pp. 1414-1423. doi:10.1124/mol.106.026344
B. V. Stadel, “Dietary Iodine and Risk of Breast, Endometrial, and Ovarian Cancer,” Lancet, Vol. 307, No. 7965, 1976, pp. 890-891. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(76)92102-4
W. R. Ghent, B. A. Eskin, D. A. Low and L. P. Hill, “Iodine Replacement in Fibrocystic Disease of the Breast,” Canadian Journal of Surgery, Vol. 36, No. 5, 1993, pp. 453-460.
B. A. Eskin, D. G. Bartuska, M. R. Dunn, G. Jacob and M. B. Dratman, “Mammary Gland Dysplasia in Iodine Deficiency. Studies in Rats,” JAMA, Vol. 200, No. 8, 1967, pp. 691-695. doi:10.1001/jama.1967.03120210077014
B. A. Eskin, “Dietary Iodine and Cancer Risk,” Lancet, Vol. 2, 1976, pp. 807-808. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(76)90646-2
J. H. Kessler, “The Effect of Supraphysiologic Levels of Iodine on Patients with Cyclic Mastalgia,” Breast Journal, Vol. 10, No. 4, 2004, pp. 328-336. doi:10.1111/j.1075-122X.2004.21341.x
WHO/UNICEF/ICIDD, “Recommended Iodine Levels in Salt and Guidelines for Monitoring Their Adequacy and Effectiveness,” WHO, Geneva, 1996.
K. L. Caldwell, R. Jones and J. G. Hollowell, “Urinary Iodine Concentration: United States National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2001-2002,” Thyroid, Vol. 15, No. 7, 2005, pp. 692-699. doi:10.1089/thy.2005.15.692
G. E. Abraham, J. D. Flechas and J. C. Hakala, “Measurement of Urinary Iodide Levels by Ion-Selective Electrode: Improved Sensitivity and Specificity by Chromatography on Anion-Exchange Resin,” The Original Internist, Vol. 11, No. 4, 2004, pp. 19-32
B. A. Eskin, C. E. Grotkowski, C. P. Connolly and W. R. Ghent, “Different Tissue Responses for Iodine and Iodide in Rat Thyroid and Mammary Glands,” Biological Trace Element Research, Vol. 49, 1995, pp. 9-19. doi:10.1007/BF02788999
L. C. Sakoda and P. L.Horn-Ross, “Reproductive and Menstrual History and Papillary Thyroid Cancer Risk: The San Francisco Bay Area Thyroid Cancer Study,” Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention, Vol. 11, 2002, pp. 51-57.
I. Lewy-Trenda, “Estrogen and Progesterone Receptors in Neoplastic and Non-Neoplastic Thyroid Lesions,” Polish Journal of Pathology, Vol. 53, 2002, pp. 67-72.
C. Aceves, B. Anguiano and G. Delgado, “Is Iodine a Gatekeeper of the Integrity of the Mammary Gland?” Journal of Mammary Gland Biology and Neoplasia, Vol. 10, No. 2, 2005, pp. 189-196. doi:10.1007/s10911-005-5401-5
K. Brown-Grant, “The Iodide Concentrating Mechanism of the Mammary Gland,” Journal of Physiology, Vol. 135, No. 3, 1957, pp. 644-654.
K. Brown-Grant, “Iodinated Compounds in Milk after Radio-Iodide Administration,” Biochimica et Biophysica Acta, Vol. 27, 1958, pp. 422-423. doi:10.1016/0006-3002(58)90358-5
B. A. Eskin, J. A. Parker, J. G. Bassett and D. L. George, “Human Breast Uptake of Radioactive Iodine,” Obstetrics & Gynecology, Vol. 44, 1974, pp. 398-402.
C. Aceves, P. Garcia-Solis, O. Arroyo-Helguera, L. Vega-Riveroll, G. Delgado and B. Anguiano, “Antineoplastic Effect of Iodine in Mammary Cancer: Participation of 6-Iodolactone (6-IL) and Peroxisome Proliferator-Activated Receptors (PPAR),” Molecular Cancer, Vol. 8, No. 1, 2009, p. 33. doi:10.1186/1476-4598-8-33
F. R. Stoddard II, A. D. Brooks, B. A. Eskin and G. J. Johannes, “Iodine Alters Gene Expression in the MCF7 Breast Cancer Cell Line: Evidence for an Anti-Estrogen Effect of Iodine,” International Journal of Medical Sciences, Vol. 5, No. 4, 2008, pp. 189-196. doi:10.7150/ijms.5.189