Black carbon is one of the primary aerosols directly emitted from biomass known to have strong absorbing properties. The INDAAF and PASMU observational field campaigns which took place (2018) in Abidjan (urban area) and Lamto (rural area) allow the analysis of Black carbon concentration at different time scales through real-time measurements using an analyzer named Aethalometer AE-33. Results presented here show at Lamto: 1) for the diurnal scale an average of 1.71 ± 0.3 μg⋅m -3 (0.34 ± 0.09 μg⋅m -3 ) in the dry (wet) season; 2) for the monthly scale an average of 1.14 ± 0.84 μg⋅m -3 ; 3) on the seasonal scale, an average of 2.2 ± 0.02 μg⋅m -3 (0.6 ± 0.19 μg⋅m -3 ) in the dry (wet) season. The black carbon variation at Lamto is seasonal with an amplification factor of 85.6. Regarding the urban area of Abidjan, due to sampling issues, our analyses were limited to daily, diurnal and weekly time scales. We observed: a) at a daily scale an average of 5.31.± 2.5 μg⋅m -3 , b) diurnal scale, an average ranging from 6.87 to 13.92 μg⋅m -3 . The analysis indicated that emissions from urban areas are more related to social and economic activities, with weekday concentrations (7.24 μg⋅m -3 ) higher than concentrations over the weekend (e.g. Saturday 6.59 μg⋅m -3 and Sunday 6.00 μg⋅m -3 ). Moreover, BC concentration in Abidjan is quite noticeable compared to that of rural areas (Lamto). The ratio between the maximum values of the two areas is of the order of 5.86. In addition, concentrations in some urban areas are slightly above the daily threshold set by the WHO (10 μg⋅m -3 ). Therefore, the levels of urban BC concentrations are alarming whilst rural BC concentrations remain below daily WHO thresholds and are of the same magnitude as those of West African megacities. This study underlies that BC concentrations at Lamto are mainly related to biomass combustion sources while those from urban areas are related to traffic sources. The latter is permanently active, unlike those in rural Lamto, which is seasonal.
Koelmans, A.A., Jonker, T.O., Cornelissen, G., Bucheli, T.D. and Van-Noort, C.M. (2006) Black Carbon: The Reverse of Its Dark Side. Chemosphere, 63, 365-377. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2005.08.034
Stocker, T.F., Qin, D., Plattner, G.K., Tignor, P., Allen, S.K., Boschung, J., Nauels, A., et al. (2013) Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group | to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Ostro, B., Lipsett, M. and Reynolds, P. (2010) Long-Term Exposure to Constituents of Fine Particulate Air Pollution and Mortality: Results from the California Teachers Study. Environmental Health Perspectives, 118, 363-369. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.0901181
Liousse, C., Penner, J.E., Chuang, C., Walton, J.J., Eddleman, H. and Cachier, H. (1996) A Global Three-Dimensional Model Study of Carbonaceous Aerosols. Journal of Geophysical Research, 105, 26871-26890. https://doi.org/10.1029/95JD03426
Babu, S. and Moorthy, K.K. (2001) Anthropogenic Impact on Aerosol Black Carbon Mass Concentration at a Tropical Coastal Station: A Case Study. Current Science, 81, 1208-1214.
Smith, K.R., Jerrett, M., Anderson, H.R., Burnett, R.T., Stone, V., Derwent, R., Atkinson, R.W., Cohen, A., Shonkoff, S.B., Krewski, D., Pope Iii, C.A., Thun, M.J. and Thurston, G. (2009) Public Health Benefits of Strategies to Reduce Greenhouse-Gas Emissions: Health Implications of Short-Lived Greenhouse Pollutants. The Lancet, 374, 2091-2103. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(09)61716-5
Pope, C.A. and Dockery, D.W. (2006) Health Effects of Fine Particulate Air Pollution: Lines That Connect. Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association, 56, 709-742. https://doi.org/10.1080/10473289.2006.10464485
Ramanathan, V. and Carmichael, G. (2008) Global and Regional Climate Changes Due to Black Carbon. Nature Geoscience, 1, 221-227. https://doi.org/10.1038/ngeo156
Gao, X., Yu, Q., Gu, Q., Chen, Y., Ding, K. and Zhu, J. (2009) Indoor Air Pollution from Solid Biomass Fuels Combustion in Rural Agricultural Area of Tibet, China. Indoor Air, 19, 198-205. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0668.2008.00579.x
Siddiqui, A.R., Lee, K., Bennett, D., Yang, X., Brown, K.H. and Bhutta, Z.A. (2009) Indoor Carbon Monoxide and PM2.5 Concentrations by Cooking Fuels in Pakistan. Indoor Air, 19, 75-82. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0668.2008.00563.x
Hu, W., Downward, G.S., Reiss, B., Xu, J., Hosgood, H.D. and Zhang, L. (2014) Personal and Indoor PM2.5 Exposure from Burning Solid Fuels in Vented and Unvented Stoves in a Rural Region of China with a High Incidence of Lung Cancer. Environmental Science & Technology, 48, 8456-8464. https://doi.org/10.1021/es502201s
Balakrishnan, K., Sambandam, S., Ghosh, S., Mukhopadhyay, K., Vaswani, M. and Arora, N.K. (2015) Household Air Pollution Exposures of Pregnant Women Receiving Advanced Combustion Cookstoves in India: Implications for Intervention. Annals of Global Health, 81, 375-385. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aogh.2015.08.009
Bartington, S.E., Bakolis, I., Devakumar, D., Kurmi, O.P., Gulliver, J. and Chaube, G. (2017) Patterns of Domestic Exposure to Carbon Monoxide and Particulate Matter in Households Using Biomass Fuel in Janakpur, Nepal. Environmental Pollution, 220, 38-45. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2016.08.074
Commodore, A.A., Hartinger, S.M., Lanata, C.F., Mäusezahl, D., Gil, A.I. and Hall, D.B. (2013) A Pilot Study Characterizing Real Time Exposures to Particulate Matter and Carbon Monoxide from Cookstove Related Woodsmoke in Rural Peru. Atmospheric Environment, 79, 380-384. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2013.06.047
Fitzgerald, C., Aguilar-Villalobos, M., Eppler, A.R., Dorner, S.C., Rathbun, S.L. and Naeher, L.P. (2012) Testing the Effectiveness of Two Improved Cookstove Interventions in the Santiago de Chuco Province of Peru. Science of the Total Environment, 420, 54-64. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2011.10.059
Riojas-Rodriguez, H., Schilmann, A., Marron-Mares, A.T., Masera, O., Li, Z. and Ro Manoff, L. (2011) Impact of the Improved Patsari Biomass Stove on Urinary Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon Biomarkers and Carbon Monoxide Exposures in Rural Mexican Women. Environmental Health Perspectives, 119, 1301-1307. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1002927
Ochieng, C.A., Vardoulakis, S. and Tonne, C. (2013) Are Rocket Mud Stoves Associated with Lower Indoor Carbon Monoxide and Personal Exposure in Rural Kenya? Indoor Air, 23, 14-24. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0668.2012.00786.x
Pennise, D., Brant, S., Agbeve, S.M., Quaye, W., Mengesha, F. and Tadele, W. (2009) Indoor Air Quality Impacts of an Improved Wood Stove in Ghana and an Ethanol Stove in Ethiopia. Energy for Sustainable Development 13, 71-76. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.esd.2009.04.003
Yoboué, V., Galy-Lacaux, C., Lacaux, J.P. and Silué, S. (2005) Rainwater Chemistry and Wet Deposition over the Wet Savanna Ecosystem of Lamto (Côte d’Ivoire). Journal of Atmospheric Chemistry, 52, 117-141. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10874-005-0281-z
Galy-Lacaux, C. and Delon, C. (2014) Nitrogen Emission and Deposition Budget in Westand Central Africa. Environmental Research Letters, 9, Article ID: 125002. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/9/12/125002
Adon, M., Galy-Lacaux, C., Yoboué, V., Delon, C., Lacaux, J.P., Castera, P. and Gardrat, E. (2010) Long Term Measurements of Sulfur Dioxide, Nitrogen Dioxide, Ammonia, Nitric Acid and Ozone in Africa Using Passive Samplers. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 10, 4407-4461. https://doi.org/10.5194/acpd-10-4407-2010
Adon, M., Delon, C., Yoboué, V., Solmon, F. and Kaptue Tchuente, A.T. (2013) Dry Deposition of Nitrogen Compounds (NO2, HNO3, NH3), Sulfur Dioxide and Ozone in West and Central African Ecosystems Using the Inferential Method. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 13, 11351-11374. https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-13-11351-2013
Adon, M., Yoboue, V., Galy-Lacaux, C., Liousse, C., Diop, B., Doumbia, E.H.T., Gardrat, E., Ndiaye, S.A. and Jarnot, C. (2016) Measurements of NO2, SO2, NH3, HNO3 and O3 in West African Urban. Atmospheric Environment, 135, 31-40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2016.03.050
Bahino, J., Yoboué, V., Galy-Lacaux, C., Adon, M., Akpo, A., Keita, S., et al. (2018) A Pilot of Gaseous Pollutants’ Measurement (NO2, SO2, NH3, HNO3 and O3) in Abidjan, Côte d’Ivoire: Contribution to an Overview of Gaseous Pollution in African Cities. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 18, 5173-5198. https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-18-5173-2018
Djossou, J., Léon, J.F., Akpo, A., Liousse, C., Yoboué, V., Bedou, M., Bodjrenou, M., Chiron, C., et al. (2018) Mass Concentration, Optical Depth and Carbon Composition of Particulate Matter in the Major Southern West African Cities of Cotonou (Benin) and Abidjan (Côte d’Ivoire). Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 18, 6275-6291. https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-18-6275-2018
Adon, A.J., Liousse, C., Doumbia, T., Baeza-Squiban, A., Cachier, H., Léon, J.F., et al. (2020) Physico-Chemical Characterization of Urban Aerosols from Specific Combustion Sources in West Africa at Abidjan in Côte d’Ivoire and Cotonou in Benin in the Frame of the DACCIWA Program. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 20, 5327-5354. https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-20-5327-2020
Arbeille, J. (1986) Recherches biologiques et écologiques sur les blattes de la région de Lamto (Côte d’Ivoire). Thèse de Doctorat, Université Paris 6, Paris.
Olahan, A. (2010) Agriculture urbaine et stratégies de survie des ménages pauvres dans le complexe spatial du district d’Abidjan. VertigO, 10, 24.
Longhurst, A.R. (1962) A Review of the Oceanography of the Gulf of Guinea. Bulletin of IFAN, 24, 633-663.
Morliere, A. and Robert, J.P. (1972) Etude hydrologique du plateau continental ivoirien. Documents Scientifiques-CRO, 30 p.
Hansen, A.D., Rosen, H. and Novakov, T. (1984) The Aethalometer: An Instrument for the Real Time Measurement of Optical Absorption by Particles. Science of the Total Environment, 36, 191-196. https://doi.org/10.1016/0048-9697(84)90265-1
Drinovec, L., Monik, G., Zotter, P., Prévôt, A.H., Ruckstuhl, C., Coz, E., et al. (2015) The “Dual-Spot” Aethalometer: An Improved Measurement of Aerosol Black Carbon with Real-Time Loading Compensation. Atmospheric Measurement Techniques, 8, 1965-1979. https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-8-1965-2015
Hansen, J., Nazarenko, L., Ruedy, R., Sato, M., Willis, J., Del Genio, D., et al. (2005) Earth’s Energy Imbalance: Confirmation and Implications. Science, 308, 1431-1435. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1110252
Virkkula, A., Mekele, T., Hillamo, R., Yli-Tuomi, T., Hirsikko, A., Hemeri, K. and Koponen, I. (2007) A Simple Procedure for Correcting Loading Effects of Aethalometer Data. Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association, 57, 1214-1222. https://doi.org/10.3155/1047-3289.57.10.1214
Weingartner, E., Saathoff, H., Schnaiter, M., Streit, N., Bitnar, B. and Baltens-Perger U. (2003) Absorption of Light by Soot Particles: Determination of the Absorption Coefficient by Means of Aethalometers. Journal of Aerosol Science, 34, 1445-1463. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0021-8502(03)00359-8
Jeong, C.H., Hopke, P.K., Kim, E. and Lee, D.W. (2004) The Comparison between Thermal-Optical Transmittance Elemental Carbon and Aethalometer Black Carbon Measured at Multiple Monitoring Sites. Atmospheric Environment, 38, 5193-5204. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2004.02.065
Wang, Y.G., Hopke, P.K., Rattigan, O.V. and Zhu, Y. (2011) Characterization of Ambient Black Carbon and Wood Burning Particles in Two Urban Areas. Journal of Environmental Monitoring, 13, 1919-1926. https://doi.org/10.1039/c1em10117j
Srivastava, A., Singh, S., Tiwari, S. and Bisht, D. (2012) Contribution of Anthropogenic Aerosols in Direct Radiative Forcing and Atmospheric Heating Rate over Delhi in the Indo-Gangetic Basin. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 19, 1144-1158. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-011-0633-y
Tiwari, V.M., Wahr, J. and Swenson, S. (2009) Dwindling Groundwater Resources in Northern India, from Satellite Gravity Observations. Geophysical Research Letters, 36, 184-201. https://doi.org/10.1029/2009GL039401
Collaud, M., Weingartner, E., Apituley, A., Ceburnis, D., Fierz-Schmidhauser, R., Flentje, H., et al. (2010) Minimizing Light Absorption Measurement Artifacts of the Aethalometer: Evaluation of Five Correction Algorithms. Atmospheric Measurement Techniques, 3, 457-474. https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-3-457-2010
Sigha-Nkamdjou, L., Galy-Lacaux, C., Pont, V., Richard, S., Sighoumnou, D. and Lacaux, J.P. (2003) Rainwater Chemistry and Wet Deposition over the Equatorial Forested Ecosystem of Zoétélé (Cameroon). Journal of Atmospheric Chemistry, 46, 173-198. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1026057413640
Abbadie, L., Gignoux, J., Lepage, M. and Le Roux, X. (2006) Environmental Constraints on Living Organisms. In: Abbadie, L., Gignoux, J., Le Roux, X. and Lepage M., Eds., Lamto. Ecological Studies (Analysis and Synthesis), Springer, New York, 45-61. https://doi.org/10.1007/0-387-33857-8_4
Ouafo-Leumbe, M.R., Galy-Lacaux, C., Liousse, C., et al. (2018) Chemical Composition and Sources of Atmospheric Aerosols at Djougou (Benin). Meteorol Atmos Phys, 130, 591–609. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00703-017-0538-5
Liousse, C. and Cachier, H. (1992) Measurement of Black Carbon Aerosols in the Atmosphere of Two Different Source Regions: Real-Time Data for the Paris Region and a Savanna Site of the Ivory Coast. Environmental Technology, 13, 959-967. https://doi.org/10.1080/09593339209385231
Doumbia, E.H.T., Liousse, C., Galy-Lacaux, C., Ndiaye, S.A., Diop, B., Ouafo, M., Assamoi, E.M., Gardrat, E., Castera, P., Rosset, R., Akpo, A. and Sigha, L. (2012) Real Time Black Carbon Measurements in West and Central Africa Urban Sites. Atmospheric Environment, 54, 529-537. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2012.02.005
Vincent, A., Dutkiewicz Alvi, S., Ghauri, B.M., Choudhary, M.I. and Husain, L. (2009) Black Carbon Aerosols in Urban Air in South Asia. Atmospheric Environment, 43, 1737-1744. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2008.12.043
Balasubramanian, R., Qian, W.B., Dccesari, S., Facchini, M.C. and Fuzzi, S. (2003) Comprehension Characterization of PM2.5 Aerosols in Singapore. Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres, 108, Article ID: 4523. https://doi.org/10.1029/2002JD002517
Tripathi, S.N., Dey, S., Tare, V. and Satheesh, S.K. (2005) Aerosol Black Carbon Radiative Forcing at an Industrial City in Northern India. Geophysical Research Letters, 32, No. 8. https://doi.org/10.1029/2005GL022515
Green, D., Alexander, J. and Fuller, G. (2007) Marylebone Road Aethalometer Trial Report. Environmental Research Group, King’s College, London, 41 p.
Ruellan, S. and Cachier, H. (2001) Characterization of Fresh Particulate Vehicular Exhausts Near a Paris High Flow Road. Atmospheric Environment, 35, 453-468. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1352-2310(00)00110-2
Cachier, H., Liousse, C. and Buat-Menard, P. (1995) Particulate Content of Savanna Fire Emissions. Journal of Atmospheric Chemistry, 22, 123-148. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00708185
Liousse, C., Guillaume, B., Grégoire, J.M., Mallet, M., Galy, C., Pont, V., et al. (2010) Western African Aerosols Modelling with Updated Biomass Burning Emission Inventories in the Frame of the AMMA-IDAF Program. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics Discussions, 10, 7347-7382. https://doi.org/10.5194/acpd-10-7347-2010