Land-use conversion and unsustainable farming practices are degrading native forest ecosystems of Ghana’s humid savannah agro-ecological zone. This study assessed the impact of land-use change on soil C and N stocks in different land-use systems and soil types. A total of eighty (80) composite soil samples at two depths (0 - 20 cm and 20 - 50 cm) were sampled from five land use types (Forest, Woodland savannah, Grassland, Fallow and Cropland) for laboratory analyses. Particle size distribution, bulk density, pH, SOC and TN were determined using standard procedures. Results of the study indicated that C and N stocks were significantly lower in croplands (p 2 value of 0.85 and 0.93 for the 0 - 20 and 20 - 50 cm depth, respectively. Soil C and N stocks in the study area were estimated to be 34.56 kg/m 2 and 4.63 kg/m 2 for soil types and 26.89 kg/m 2 and 3.39 kg/m2 for land use types, respectively for the 0 to 50 cm soil depth. Our findings indicated that the conversion of native forest to arable land has significantly reduced soil C and N stocks in the top 50 cm (0.50 m) soil layer by 50.77% and 47.77%, respectively. Therefore, we conclude that land-use change, soil type, and soil depth influenced soil C and N stocks of land-use systems in the humid savannah agro-ecological zone of Ghana.
KeywordsLand ConversionNutrient DynamicsSoil C and N StocksSoil TypeLand-Use
Seifu, W., Elias, E. and Gebresamuel, G. (2020) The Effects of Land Use and Landscape Position on Soil Physicochemical Properties in a Semiarid Watershed, Northern Ethiopia. Applied and Environmental Soil Science, 2020, Article ID: 8816248. https://doi.org/10.1155/2020/8816248
White, R.E. (2005) Principles and Practice of Soil Science: The Soil as a Natural Resource. John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken.
Lal, R. (2007) Carbon Management in Agricultural Soils. Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change, 12, 303-322. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11027-006-9036-7
Yimer, F., Ledin, S. and Abdelkadir, A. (2007) Changes in Soil Organic Carbon and Total Nitrogen Contents in Three Adjacent Land Use Types in the Bale Mountains, South-Eastern Highlands of Ethiopia. Forest Ecology and Management, 242, 337-342. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2007.01.087
Wairiu, M. and Lal, R. (2003) Soil Organic Carbon in Relation to Cultivation and Topsoil Removal on Sloping Lands of Kolombangara, Solomon Islands. Soil and Tillage Research, 70, 19-27. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0167-1987(02)00116-2
Rasiah, V., Florentine, S.K., Williams, B.L. and Westbrooke, M.E. (2004) The Impact of Deforestation and Pasture Abandonment on Soil Properties in the Wet Tropics of Australia. Geoderma, 120, 35-45. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2003.08.008
Schlesinger, W.H. (2000) Carbon Sequestration in Soils: Some Cautions amidst Optimism. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, 82, 121-127. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0167-8809(00)00221-8
Amundson, R. (2001) The Carbon Budget in Soils. Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences, 29, 535-562. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.earth.29.1.535
Xu, G.C., Li, Z.B., Li, P., Lu, K.X. and Wang, Y. (2013) Spatial Variability of Soil Organic Carbon in a Typical Watershed in the Source Area of the Middle Dan River, China. Soil Research, 51, 41-49. https://doi.org/10.1071/SR12327
Mueller, L., Schindler, U., Mirschel, W., Shepherd, T.G., Ball, B.C., Helming, K., et al. (2010) Assessing the Productivity Function of Soils. A review. Agronomy for Sustainable Development, 30, 601-614. https://doi.org/10.1051/agro/2009057
Scholes, R.J. and Hall, D.O. (1996) The Carbon Budget of Tropical Savannas, Woodlands and Grasslands. SCOPE-Scientific Committee on Problems of the Environment International Council of Scientific Unions, 56, 69-100.
Lorenz, K. and Lal, R. (2018) Soil Carbon Stock. In: Carbon Sequestration in Agricultural Ecosystems, Springer, Cham, 39-136. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-92318-5_2
Eswaran, H., Van Den Berg, E. and Reich, P. (1993) Organic Carbon in Soils of the World. Soil Science Society of America Journal, 57, 192-194. https://doi.org/10.2136/sssaj1993.03615995005700010034x
Bationo, A., Kihara, J., Vanlauwe, B., Waswa, B. and Kimetu, J. (2007) Soil Organic Carbon Dynamics, Functions and Management in West African Agro-Ecosystems. Agricultural Systems, 94, 13-25. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agsy.2005.08.011
Six, J., Conant, R.T., Paul, E.A. and Paustian, K. (2002) Stabilization Mechanisms of Soil Organic Matter: Implications for C-Saturation of Soils. Plant and Soil, 241, 155-176. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1016125726789
Lal, R., Negassa, W. and Lorenz, K. (2015) Carbon Sequestration in Soil. Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability, 15, 79-86. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cosust.2015.09.002
Dawidson, E. and Nilsson, C. (2000) Soil Organic Carbon in the Upper East Region, Ghana-Measurement and Modelling. MSc. Thesis, Lunds Universitets Naturgeografiska Institution, Lund.
Roose, E. and Barthes, B. (2001) Organic Matter Management for Soil Conservation and Productivity Restoration in Africa: A Contribution from Francophone Research. In: Martius, C., Tiessen, H. and Vlek, P.L.G., (Eds.), Managing Organic Matter in Tropical Soils: Scope and Limitations. Developments in Plant and Soil Sciences, Springer, Dordrecht, 159-170. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-2172-1_15
Pimentel, D. and Burgess, M. (2013) Soil Erosion Threatens Food Production. Agriculture, 3, 443-463. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture3030443
Bationo, A. and Buerkert, A. (2001) Soil Organic Carbon Management for Sustainable Land Use in Sudano-Sahelian West Africa. In: Martius, C., Tiessen, H. and Vlek, P.L.G., (Eds.), Managing Organic Matter in Tropical Soils: Scope and Limitations. Developments in Plant and Soil Sciences, Springer, Dordrecht, 131-142. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-2172-1_13
Bombelli, A. and Valentini, R. (2008) Africa and the Carbon Cycle: The CarboAfrica Project. Proceedings of the Open Science Conference of Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), Accra, 25-27 November 2008, World Soil Resources Reports 105.
Ardö, J. and Olsson, L. (2003) Assessment of Soil Organic Carbon in Semi-Arid Sudan using GIS and the Century Model. Journal of Arid Environments, 54, 633-651. https://doi.org/10.1006/jare.2002.1105
Chan, Y. (2008) Increasing Soil Organic Carbon of Agricultural Land. Primefact, 735, 1-5.
Asiamah, R.D. (2008) Soil Resources of Ghana. In: Bationo, A., Tabo, R., Waswa, B., Okeyo, J., Kihara, J., Fosu, M. and Kabore, S., (Eds), Synthesis of Soil, Water and Nutrient Management Research in the Volta Basin, Ecomedia Ltd., Nairobi, 25-41.
Sanderman, J., Farquharson, R. and Baldock, J. (2009) Soil Carbon Sequestration Potential: A Review for Australian Agriculture. CSIRO Publishing, Clayton.
Nandwa, S.M. (2001) Soil Organic Carbon (SOC) Management for Sustainable Productivity of Cropping and Agro-forestry Systems in Eastern and Southern Africa. In: Martius, C., Tiessen, H. and Vlek, P.L.G., (Eds.), Managing Organic Matter in Tropical Soils: Scope and Limitations. Developments in Plant and Soil Sciences, Springer, Dordrecht, 143-158. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-2172-1_14
Six, J., Feller, C., Denef, K., Ogle, S., de Moraes Sa, J.C. and Albrecht, A. (2002) Soil Organic Matter, Biota and Aggregation in Temperate and Tropical Soils-Effects of No-Tillage. Agronomie, 22, 755-775. https://doi.org/10.1051/agro:2002043
Lepsch, I.F., Menk, J.R.F. and Oliveira, J.D. (1994) Carbon Storage and other Properties of Soils under Agriculture and Natural Vegetation in Sao Paulo State, Brazil. Soil Use and Management, 10, 34-42. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-2743.1994.tb00455.x
Van Leeuwen, J.P., Djukic, I., Bloem, J., Lehtinen, T., Hemerik, L., De Ruiter, P.C. and Lair, G.J. (2017). Effects of Land Use on Soil Microbial Biomass, Activity and Community Structure at Different Soil Depths in the Danube Floodplain. European Journal of Soil Biology, 79, 14-20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejsobi.2017.02.001
Lugo, A.E., Sanchez, M.J. and Brown, S. (1986) Land Use and Organic Carbon Content of Some Subtropical Soils. Plant and Soil, 96, 185-196. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02374763
Seneviratne, G. (2015) Signal Transduction in Edaphic Ecosystems Governs Sustainability. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, 210, 47-49. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2015.05.006
Dilly, O., Blume, H.P., Sehy, U., Jimenez, M. and Munch, J.C. (2003) Variation of Stabilised, Microbial and Biologically Active Carbon and Nitrogen in Soil under Contrasting Land Use and Agricultural Management Practices. Chemosphere, 52, 557-569. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0045-6535(03)00237-6
Hooper, D.U. and Vitousek, P.M. (1998) Effects of Plant Composition and Diversity on Nutrient Cycling. Ecological Monographs, 68, 121-149. https://doi.org/10.1890/0012-9615(1998)068[0121:EOPCAD]2.0.CO;2
Bardgett, R.D., Freeman, C. and Ostle, N.J. (2008) Microbial Contributions to Climate Change through Carbon Cycle Feedbacks. The ISME Journal, 2, 805-814. https://doi.org/10.1038/ismej.2008.58
Jagadamma, S., Mayes, M.A., Steinweg, J.M. and Schaeffer, S.M. (2014) Substrate Quality alters the Microbial Mineralization of added Substrate and Soil Organic Carbon. Biogeosciences, 11, 4665-4678. https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-11-4665-2014
Downs, M. and Sala, O.E. (2009) VI.6 Grasslands. In: Levin, S.A., et al., (Eds.), The Princeton Guide to Ecology, Princeton University Press, Princeton, 614-618. https://doi.org/10.1515/9781400833023.614
Shiferaw, A., Yimer, F. and Tuffa, S. (2019) Changes in Soil Organic Carbon Stock under Different Land Use Types in Semiarid Borana Rangelands: Implications for CO2 Emission Mitigation in the Rangelands. Journal of Agricultural Science and Food Research, 10, Article ID: 1000254.
Azam, F., Farooq, S. and Lodhi, A. (2003) Microbial Biomass in Agricultural Soils-Determination, Synthesis, Dynamics and Role in Plant Nutrition. Pakistan Journal of Biological Sciences, 6, 629-639. https://doi.org/10.3923/pjbs.2003.629.639
Bini, D., dos Santos, C.A., do Carmo, K.B., Kishino, N., Andrade, G., Zangaro, W. and Nogueira, M.A. (2013) Effects of Land Use on Soil Organic Carbon and Microbial Processes Associated with Soil Health in Southern Brazil. European Journal of Soil Biology, 55, 117-123. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejsobi.2012.12.010
Singh, R., Bhardwaj, D.R., Pala, N.A., Kaushal, R. and Rajput, B.S. (2018) Soil Microbial Characteristics in Sub-Tropical Agro-Ecosystems of North Western Himalaya. Current Science, 10, 1956-1959. https://doi.org/10.18520/cs/v115/i10/1956-1959
Soleimani, A., Hosseini, S.M., Bavani, A.R.M., Jafari, M. and Francaviglia, R. (2019) Influence of Land Use and Land Cover Change on Soil Organic Carbon and Microbial Activity in the Forests of Northern Iran. CATENA, 177, 227-237. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2019.02.018
Lee, Z.M. and Schmidt, T.M. (2014) Bacterial Growth Efficiency Varies in Soils under Different Land Management Practices. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, 69, 282-290. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soilbio.2013.11.012
Sinsabaugh, R.L., Turner, B.L., Talbot, J.M., Waring, B.G., Powers, J.S., Kuske, C.R., Moorhead, D.L. and Follstad Shah, J.J. (2016). Stoichiometry of Microbial Carbon Use Efficiency in Soils. Ecological Monographs, 86, 172-189. https://doi.org/10.1890/15-2110.1
Solomon, D., Fritzsche, F., Lehmann, J., Tekalign, M. and Zech, W. (2002) Soil Organic Matter Dynamics in the Subhumid Agroecosystems of the Ethiopian Highlands. Soil Science Society of America Journal, 66, 969-978. https://doi.org/10.2136/sssaj2002.9690
Lemenih, M. and Itanna, F. (2004) Soil Carbon Stocks and Turnovers in Various Vegetation Types and Arable Lands along an Elevation Gradient in Southern Ethiopia. Geoderma, 123, 177-188. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2004.02.004
Bessah, E., Bala, A., Agodzo, S.K. and Okhimamhe, A.A. (2016) Dynamics of Soil Organic Carbon Stocks in the Guinea Savanna and Transition Agro-Ecology under Different Land-Use Systems in Ghana. Cogent Geoscience, 2, Article ID: 1140319. https://doi.org/10.1080/23312041.2016.1140319
Tan, Z., Tieszen, L.L., Tachie-Obeng, E., Liu, S. and Dieye, A.M. (2009) Historical and Simulated Ecosystem Carbon Dynamics in Ghana: Land Use, Management, and Climate. Biogeosciences, 6, 45-58. https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-6-45-2009
da Silva Santana, M., Sampaio, E.V.D.S.B., Giongo, V., Menezes, R.S.C., de Jesus, K.N., de Albuquerque, E.R.G.M., et al. (2019) Carbon and Nitrogen Stocks of Soils under Different Land Uses in Pernambuco State, Brazil. Geoderma Regional, 16, e00205. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geodrs.2019.e00205
Adjei-Gyapong, T. and Asiamah, R.D. (2002) The Interim Ghana Soil Classification System and its Relation with the World Reference Base for Soil Resources. Rapport sur les Ressources en Sols du Monde (FAO), Soil Research Institute, Kwadaso-Kumasi.
Bationo A., Fening J.O. and Kwaw A. (2018) Assessment of Soil Fertility Status and Integrated Soil Fertility Management in Ghana. In: Bationo, A., Ngaradoum, D., Youl, S., Lompo, F. and Fening J., (Eds.), Improving the Profitability, Sustainability and Efficiency of Nutrients Through Site Specific Fertilizer Recommendations in West Africa Agro-Ecosystems, Springer, Cham, 93-118. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-58789-9_7
Awoonor, J.K. (2012) Soil and Land Use Evaluation for Sustainable Agriculture in the Forest Savannah Transition Zone of Ghana. United Nations University Land Restoration.
Awoonor J.K. (2019) Soil Quality Assessment for Sustainable Land Use and Maize Production in the Forest Savannah Transition Zone of Ghana. MPhil. Thesis, CSIR College of Science and Technology, Accra.
Vanlauwe, B., AbdelGadir, A.H., Adewopo, J., Adjei-Nsiah, S., Ampadu-Boakye, T., Asare, R., et al. (2017) Looking back and Moving forward: 50 Years of Soil and Soil Fertility Management Research in Sub-Saharan Africa. International Journal of Agricultural Sustainability, 15, 613-631. https://doi.org/10.1080/14735903.2017.1393038
Corbeels, M., Cardinael, R., Naudin, K., Guibert, H. and Torquebiau, E. (2019) The 4 per 1000 Goal and Soil Carbon Storage under Agroforestry and Conservation Agriculture Systems in Sub-Saharan Africa. Soil and Tillage Research, 188, 16-26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.still.2018.02.015
de Vries, W. (2018) Soil Carbon 4 per Mille: A Good Initiative but Let’s Manage Not Only the Soil but Also the Expectations: Comment on Minasny et al. (2017) Geoderma 292: 59-86. Geoderma, 309, 111-112. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2017.05.023
Ghana Statistical Service (2014) 2010 Population and Housing Census. District Analytical Report-Nkoranza North District. Accra, Ghana.
Ghana Statistical Service (2014) 2010 Population and Housing Census. District Analytical Report-Nkoranza South Municipality. Accra, Ghana.
Peel, M.C., Finlayson, B.L. and McMahon, T.A. (2007) Updated World Map of the Köppen-Geiger Climate Classification. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences, 11, 1633-1644. https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-11-1633-2007
Folly, A. (1997) Land Use Planning to Minimize Soil Erosion-A Case Study from the Upper East Region in Ghana. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen.
Adu, S.V. and Mensah-Ansah, J.A. (1995) Soils of the Afram Basin, Ashanti and Eastern Regions, Ghana. Memoir No. 12. CSIR-Soil Research Institute, Ghana.
Smith, G.K. (1962) Report on Soil and Agricultural Survey of Sene-Obosum River Basins, East Brong-Ahafo and Ashanti Regions, Ghana. U.S. Agency for International Development, Accra.
Kasei, C.N. (1990) A Synopsis on the Climate of the North of Ghana. 2nd Workshop on Improving Farming Systems in the Savanna Zone of Ghana, Nyankpala, 24-26 April 1990.
Dickson, K.B. and Benneh, G. (1995) A New Geography of Ghana. 3rd Edition, Longman Group Limited, Essex, England. UK.
Christiansen, E. and Awadzi, T.W. (2000) Water Balance in a Moist Semi-deciduous Forest in Ghana. West African Journal of Applied Ecology, 1, 11-22. https://doi.org/10.4314/wajae.v1i1.40566
Aynekulu, E., Vågen, T.G., Shephard, K. and Winowiecki, L. (2011) A Protocol for Modeling, Measurement and Monitoring Soil Carbon Stocks in Agricultural Landscapes. Version 1.1. World Agroforestry Centre, Nairobi.
Aynekulu, E., Carletto, C., Gourlay, S. and Shepherd, K. (2016) Soil Sampling in Household Surveys: Experience from Ethiopia. The World Bank, Washington, DC & World Agroforestry Centre, Nairobi.
Gourlay, S., Aynekulu, E., Shepherd, K., Carletto, C., Gourlay, S., Aynekulu, E., et al. (2017) Collecting the Dirt on Soils: Advancements in Plot-level Soil Testing and Implications for Agricultural Statistics (No. 8057). The World Bank.
IUSS Working Group (2014) World Reference Base for Soil Resources 2014 (WRB 2014). International Soil Classification System for Naming Soils and Creating Legends for Soil Maps. World Soil Resources Reports No. 106.
Bouyoucos, G.J. (1962) Hydrometer Method Improved for Making Particle Size Analyses of Soils 1. Agronomy Journal, 54, 464-465. https://doi.org/10.2134/agronj1962.00021962005400050028x
Allison, L.E. and Moodie, C.D. (1965) Carbonate. Methods of Soil Analysis: Part 2 Chemical and Microbiological Properties, 9, 1379-1396. https://doi.org/10.2134/agronmonogr9.2.c40
Bremner, J. and Mulvaney, C. (1982) Nitrogen—Total. In: Page, A.L., Ed., Methods of Soil Analysis: Part 2 Chemical and Microbiological Properties, American Society of Agronomy, Inc., Madison, 595-624. https://doi.org/10.2134/agronmonogr9.2.2ed.c31
Blake, G.R. and Hartge, K.H. (1986) Bulk Density. Methods of Soil Analysis: Part 1 Physical and Mineralogical Methods, 5, 363-375. https://doi.org/10.2136/sssabookser5.1.2ed.c13
Thomas, G.W. (1996) Soil pH and Soil Acidity. In: Sparks, D.L., et al., (Eds.), Methods of Soil Analysis: Part 3 Chemical Methods, Soil Science Society of America, Inc., Madison, 475-490. https://doi.org/10.2136/sssabookser5.3.c16
Grüneberg, E., Ziche, D. and Wellbrock, N. (2014) Organic Carbon Stocks and Sequestration Rates of Forest Soils in Germany. Global Change Biology, 20, 2644-2662. https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.12558
Poeplau, C., Vos, C. and Don, A. (2016) Soil Organic Carbon Stocks are Systematically Overestimated by Misuse of the Parameters Bulk Density and Rock Fragment Content. Soil Discussions, 3, 61-66. https://doi.org/10.5194/soil-3-61-2017
Penman, J., Gytarsky, M., Hiraishi, T., Krug, T., Kruger, D., Pipatti, R., et al. (2003) Good Practice Guidance for Land Use, Land-Use Change and Forestry. IPCC National Greenhouse Gas Inventories Programme and Institute for Global Environmental Strategies, Kanagawa.
Zhang, Y., Zhao, Y.C., Shi, X.Z., Lu, X.X., Yu, D.S., Wang, H.J., et al. (2008). Variation of Soil Organic Carbon Estimates in Mountain Regions: A Case Study from Southwest China. Geoderma, 146, 449-456. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2008.06.015
Assefa, D., Rewald, B., Sandén, H., Rosinger, C., Abiyu, A., Yitaferu, B. and Godbold, D.L. (2017) Deforestation and Land Use Strongly Effect Soil Organic Carbon and Nitrogen Stock in Northwest Ethiopia. CATENA, 153, 89-99. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2017.02.003
Adejuwon, J.O. and Ekanade, O. (1988) A Comparison of Soil Properties under Different Landuse Types in a part of the Nigerian Cocoa Belt. CATENA, 15, 319-331. https://doi.org/10.1016/0341-8162(88)90054-9
Islam, K.R. and Weil, R.R. (2000) Land Use Effects on Soil Quality in a Tropical Forest Ecosystem of Bangladesh. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, 79, 9-16. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0167-8809(99)00145-0
Toru, T. and Kibret, K. (2019) Carbon Stock under Major Land Use/Land Cover Types of Hades Sub-Watershed, Eastern Ethiopia. Carbon Balance and Management, 14, Article No. 7. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13021-019-0122-z
Kassa, H., Dondeyne, S. Poesen, J. Frankl, A. and Nyssen, J. (2017) Impact of Deforestation on Soil Fertility, Soil Carbon and Nitrogen Stocks: The Case of the Gacheb Catchment in the White Nile Basin, Ethiopia. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, 247, 273-282. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2017.06.034
Agyili, R. (2003) Soils of the Pru River Basin. Ashanti and Brong Ahafo Regions, Ghana. Memoir No. 14. CSIR-Soil Research Institute, Ghana.
Ellis, S. and Mellor, T. (1995) Soils and Environment. 1st Edition, Routledge, London. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203415245
Tsozué, D., Nghonda, J.P., Tematio, P. and Basga, S.D. (2019) Changes in Soil Properties and Soil Organic Carbon Stocks along an Elevation Gradient at Mount Bambouto, Central Africa. CATENA, 175, 251-262. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2018.12.028
Zhang, D., Hui, D., Luo, Y. and Zhou, G. (2008) Rates of Litter Decomposition in Terrestrial Ecosystems: Global Patterns and Controlling Factors. Journal of Plant Ecology, 1, 85-93. https://doi.org/10.1093/jpe/rtn002
Torn, M.S., Swanston, C.W., Castanha, C. and Trumbore, S.E. (2009). Storage and Turnover of Organic Matter in Soil. In: Biophysico-chemical Processes Involving Natural Nonliving Organic Matter in Environmental Systems (eds N. Senesi, B. Xing and P.M. Huang). https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470494950.ch6
Havlin, J.L., Tisdale, S.L., Nelson, W.L. and Beaton, J.D. (2016) Soil Fertility and Fertilizers. Pearson Education India, Delhi.
Reyna-Bowen, L., Fernandez-Rebollo, P., Fernández-Habas, J. and Gómez, J.A. (2020) The Influence of Tree and Soil Management on Soil Organic Carbon Stock and Pools in Dehesa Systems. CATENA, 190, Article ID: 104511. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2020.104511
Tsozué, D., Noubissie, N.M.M., Mamdem, E.L.T., Basga, S.D. and Oyono, D.L.B. (2021) Effects of Environmental Factors and Soil Properties on Soil Organic Carbon Stock in a Natural Dry Tropical Area of Cameroon. Soil, 7, 677-691. https://doi.org/10.5194/soil-7-677-2021
Webster, R. (2012) Soil Genesis and Classification. 6th Edition. By S. W. Buol, R. J. Southard, R. C. Graham and P. A. McDaniel. Chichester, UK: John Wiley (2011), pp. xvi+543, ￡60.00. ISBN 978-0-8138-0769-0. Experimental Agriculture, 48, 309. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0014479711001402
Brady, N.C. and Weil, R.R. (2008). The Nature and Properties of Soils. 14th Edition, Pearson Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ. https://lib.ugent.be/catalog/rug01:001813846
Adugna, A. and Abegaz, A. (2016) Effects of Land Use Changes on the Dynamics of Selected Soil Properties in Northeast Wellega, Ethiopia. Soil, 2, 63-70. https://doi.org/10.5194/soil-2-63-2016
Miller, R.W. and Donahue, R.L. (1995) Soils in Our Environment. 7th Edition, Prentice Hall Inc., Hoboken, 67-68.
Ranst, E.V., Dumon, M., Tolossa, A.R., Cornelis, J.-T., Stoops, G., Vandenberghe, R.E., and Deckers, J. (2011) Revisiting Ferrolysis Processes in the Formation of Planosols for Rationalizing the Soils with Stagnic Properties in WRB. Geoderma, 163, 265-274. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2011.05.002
Ayodele, O.J. and Omotoso, S.O. (2008) Nutrient Management for Maize Production in Soils of the Savannah Zone of South-Western Nigeria. International Journal Soil Science, 3, 20-27. https://doi.org/10.3923/ijss.2008.20.27
Batlle-Bayer, L., Batjes, N.H. and Bindraban, P.S. (2010) Changes in Organic Carbon Stocks upon Land Use Conversion in the Brazilian Cerrado: A Review. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, 137, 47-58. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2010.02.003
Tellen, V.A. and Yerima, B.P.K. (2018) Effects of Land Use Change on Soil Physicochemical Properties in Selected Areas in the North West Region of Cameroon. Environmental Systems Research, 7, Article No. 3. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40068-018-0106-0
Hazelton, P. and Murphy, B. (2007) Interpreting Soil Test Results: What Do All the Numbers Mean? CSIRO Publishing, Collingwood. https://doi.org/10.1071/9780643094680
Yerima, B. and Ranst, E.V. (2005) Introduction to Soil Science: Soils of the Tropics. Trafford Publishing, Bloomington. http://hdl.handle.net/1854/LU-368421
Victor, A.D., Valery, N.N., Francois, A.I., Vanissa, T.D.C., Paulidore, M. and Louis, Z. (2021) Dynamics of Soil Organic Carbon Stock under Different Types of Savannah Agrosystems in the Sudano-Sahelian Zone of Cameroon. Eurasian Journal of Soil Science, 10, 51-60. https://doi.org/10.18393/ejss.809272
Schmidt, M.W.I., Torn, M.S., Abiven, S., Dittmar, T., Guggenberger, G., Janssens, I.A., et al. (2011) Persistence of Soil Organic Matter as an Ecosystem Property. Nature, 478, 49-56. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature10386
Kome, G.K., Enang, R.K. and Yerima, B.P.K. (2021) Soil Organic Carbon Distribution in a Humid Tropical Plain of Cameroon: Interrelationships with Soil Properties. Applied and Environmental Soil Science, 2021, Article ID: 6052513. https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/6052513
Delelegn, Y.T., Purahong, W., Blazevic, A., Yitaferu, B., Wubet, T., Göransson, H. and Godbold, D.L. (2017) Changes in Land Use alter Soil Quality and Aggregate Stability in the Highlands of Northern Ethiopia. Scientific Reports, 7, Article No. 13602. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-14128-y
Girmay, G. and Singh, B.R. (2012) Changes in Soil Organic Carbon Stocks and Soil Quality: Land-Use System Effects in Northern Ethiopia. Acta Agriculturae Scandinavica Section B—Soil and Plant Science, 62, 519-530. https://doi.org/10.1080/09064710.2012.663786
Amasi, A.I.M., Wynants, M., Kawala, R.A., Sawe, S.F., Blake, W.H. and Mtei, K.M. (2021) Evaluating Soil Carbon as a Proxy for Erosion Risk in the Spatio-temporal Complex Hydropower Catchment in Upper Pangani, Northern Tanzania. Earth, 2, 764-780. https://doi.org/10.3390/earth2040045
Don, A., Schumacher, J., and Freibauer, A. (2011) Impact of Tropical Land-Use Change on Soil Organic Carbon Stocks—A Meta-Analysis. Global Change Biology, 17, 1658-1670. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2486.2010.02336.x
Fujisaki, K., Perrin, A.-S., Desjardins, T., Bernoux, M., Balbino, L.C. and Brossard, M. (2015) From Forest to Cropland and Pasture Systems: A Critical Review of Soil Organic Carbon Stocks Changes in Amazonia. Global Change Biology, 21, 2773-2786. https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.12906
Davidson, E.A. and Ackerman, I.L. (1993) Changes in Soil Carbon Inventories following Cultivation of Previously Untilled Soils. Biogeochemistry, 20, 161-193. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00000786
Post, W.M. and Kwon, K.C. (2000) Soil Carbon Sequestration and Land-Use Change: Processes and Potential. Global Change Biology, 6, 317-327. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2486.2000.00308.x
Detwiler, R.P. (1986) Land Use Change and the Global Carbon Cycle: The Role of Tropical Soils. Biogeochemistry, 2, 67-93. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02186966
Guo, L.B. and Gifford, R.M. (2002) Soil Carbon Stocks and Land Use Change: A Meta-Analysis. Global Change Biology, 8, 345-360. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1354-1013.2002.00486.x
Lemenih, M., Karltun, E. and Olsson, M. (2005) Soil Organic Matter Dynamics after Deforestation along a Farm Field Chronosequence in Southern Highlands of Ethiopia. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, 109, 9-19. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2005.02.015
Agboadoh, D.M.Y. (2011) Estimation and Mapping of Soil Organic Carbon Stocks in Croplands of the Bechem Forest District, Ghana.
Jiao, Y., Xu, Z., Zhao, J. and Yang, W. (2012) Changes in Soil Carbon Stocks and Related Soil Properties along a 50-Year Grassland-to-Cropland Conversion Chronosequence in an Agro-Pastoral Ecotone of Inner Mongolia, China. Journal of Arid Land, 4, 420-430. https://doi.org/10.3724/SP.J.1227.2012.00420
Djongmo, V.A., Noumi, V.N., Zapfack, L., Bi-Tra, A.V. and Nyeck, B. (2019) Vegetation Structure, Root Biomass Distribution and Soil Carbon Stock of Savannah Agrosystems in Sudano-Sahelian Zone of Cameroon. Journal of Botany Research, 2, 68-77. https://doi.org/10.36959/771/563
Emiru, N. and Gebrekidan, H. (2013) Effect of Land Use Changes and Soil Depth on Soil Organic Matter, Total Nitrogen and Available Phosphorus Contents of Soils in Senbat Watershed, Western Ethiopia. ARPN Journal of Agricultural and Biological Science, 8, 206-2012.
Girmay, G., Singh, B.R., Mitiku, H., Borresen, T. and Lal, R. (2008) Carbon Stocks in Ethiopian Soils in Relation to Land Use and Soil Management. Land Degradation & Development, 19, 351-367. https://doi.org/10.1002/ldr.844
Amanuel, W., Yimer, F. and Karltun, E. (2018) Soil Organic Carbon Variation in Relation to Land Use Changes: The Case of Birr Watershed, Upper Blue Nile River Basin, Ethiopia. Journal of Ecology and Environment, 42, Article No. 16. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41610-018-0076-1
Adeboye, M.K.A., Bala, A., Osunde, A.O., Uzoma, A.O., Odofin, A.J. and Lawal, B.A. (2011) Assessment of Soil Quality using Soil Organic Carbon and Total Nitrogen and Microbial Properties in Tropical Agroecosystems. Agricultural Sciences, 2, 34-40. https://doi.org/10.4236/as.2011.21006
Price S.P., Bradford M.A. and Ashton M.S. (2012) Characterizing Organic Carbon Stocks and Flows in Forest Soils. In: Ashton, M., Tyrrell, M., Spalding, D. and Gentry, B., (Eds.), Managing Forest Carbon in a Changing Climate, Springer, Dordrecht, 7-30.
Gorham, C., Lavery, P., Kelleway, J.J., Salinas, C. and Serrano, O. (2021) Soil Carbon Stocks Vary Across Geomorphic Settings in Australian Temperate Tidal Marsh Ecosystems. Ecosystems, 24, 319-334. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10021-020-00520-9
Batjes, N.H. (1996) Total Carbon and Nitrogen in the Soils of the World. European Journal of Soil Science, 65, 10-21. https://doi.org/10.1111/ejss.12114_2
Hiederer, R. (2009) Distribution of Organic Carbon in Soil Profile Data. Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, Luxembourg, 126 p.
Silva, L.F. da, Fruett, T., Zinn, Y.L., Inda, A.V. and do Nascimento, P.C. (2019) Genesis, Morphology and Mineralogy of Planosols Developed from Different Parent Materials in Southern Brazil. Geoderma, 341, 46-58. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2018.12.010
Verchot, L.V., Dutaur, L., Shepherd, K.D. and Albrecht, A. (2011) Organic Matter Stabilization in Soil Aggregates: Understanding the Biogeochemical Mechanisms that Determine the Fate of Carbon Inputs in Soils. Geoderma, 161, 182-193. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2010.12.017
Prasad, J.V.N.S., Rao, C.S., Srinivas, K., Jyothi, C.N., Venkateswarlu, B., Ramachandrappa, B.K., et al. (2016) Effect of Ten Years of Reduced Tillage and Recycling of Organic Matter on Crop Yields, Soil Organic Carbon and its Fractions in Alfisols of Semi Arid Tropics of Southern India. Soil and Tillage Research, 156, 131-139. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.still.2015.10.013
Gelaw, A.M., Singh, B.R. and Lal, R. (2014) Soil Organic Carbon and Total Nitrogen Stocks under Different Land Uses in a Semi-arid Watershed in Tigray, Northern Ethiopia. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, 188, 256-263. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2014.02.035
Takoutsing, B., Weber, J.C., Tchoundjeu, Z. and Shepherd, K. (2016) Soil Chemical Properties Dynamics as Affected by Land Use Change in the Humid Forest Zone of Cameroon. Agroforestry Systems, 90, 1089-1102. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10457-015-9885-8
Lal, R. (2008). Carbon Sequestration. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 363, 815-830. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2007.2185
Jobbágy, E.G. and Jackson, R.B. (2000) The Vertical Distribution of Soil Organic Carbon and Its Relation to Climate and Vegetation. Ecological Applications, 10, 423-436. https://doi.org/10.1890/1051-0761(2000)010[0423:TVDOSO]2.0.CO;2
Rabbi, S.F., Tighe, M., Cowie, A., Wilson, B.R., Schwenke, G., Mcleod, M., et al. (2014) The Relationships between Land Uses, Soil Management Practices, and Soil Carbon Fractions in South Eastern Australia. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, 197, 41-52. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2014.06.020
Barbiero, L., Kumar, M.S.M., Violette, A., Oliva, P., Braun, J.J., Kumar, C. and Valles, V. (2010) Ferrolysis Induced Soil Transformation by Natural Drainage in Vertisols of Sub-Humid South India. Geoderma, 156, 173-188. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2010.02.014
Van Ranst, E., Dumon, M., Tolossa, A.R., Cornelis, J.T., Stoops, G., Vandenberghe, R.E. and Deckers, J. (2011) Revisiting Ferrolysis Processes in the Formation of Planosols for Rationalizing the Soils with Stagnic Properties in WRB. Geoderma, 163, 265-274. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2011.05.002
Seboko, K.R., Kotze, E., van Tol, J. and van Zijl, G. (2021) Characterization of Soil Carbon Stocks in the City of Johannesburg. Land, 10, Article No. 83. https://doi.org/10.3390/land10010083
Van Breemen., N. and Buurman, P. (2002) Hydromorphic soils. In: Van Breemen, N. and Buurman, P., (Eds.), Soil Formation, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, 151-181. https://doi.org/10.1007/0-306-48163-4
Vågen, T.G., Lal, R. and Singh, B.R. (2005) Soil Carbon Sequestration in Sub‐saharan Africa: A Review. Land Degradation & Development, 16, 53-71. https://doi.org/10.1002/ldr.644
Wang, X., Huang, X., Hu, J. and Zhang, Z. (2020) The Spatial Distribution Characteristics of Soil Organic Carbon and Its Effects on Topsoil under Different Karst Landforms. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17, Article No. 2889. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17082889
Cherubin, M.R., Tormena, C.A. and Karlen, D.L. (2017) Soil Quality Evaluation Using the Soil Management Assessment Framework (SMAF) in Brazilian Oxisols with Contrasting Texture. Revista Brasileira De Ciencia Do Solo, 41, e0160148. https://doi.org/10.1590/18069657rbcs20160148
de Souza Braz, A.M., Fernandes, A.R. and Alleoni, L.R.F. (2013) Soil Attributes after the Conversion from Forest to Pasture in Amazon. Land Degradation & Development, 24, 33-38. https://doi.org/10.1002/ldr.1100
Davy, M.C. and Koen, T.B. (2013) Variations in Soil Organic Carbon for Two Soil Types and Six Land Uses in the Murray Catchment, New South Wales, Australia. Soil Research, 51, 631-644. https://doi.org/10.1071/SR12353
Takoutsing, B., Weber, J., Aynekulu, E., Martín, J.A.R., Shepherd, K., Sila, A., et al. (2016) Assessment of Soil Health Indicators for Sustainable Production of Maize in Smallholder Farming Systems in the Highlands of Cameroon. Geoderma, 276, 64-73. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoderma.2016.04.027
Poirier, V., Roumet, C. and Munson, A.D. (2018) The Root of the Matter: Linking Root Traits and Soil Organic Matter Stabilization Processes. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, 120, 246-259. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soilbio.2018.02.016
Six, J. and Paulstian, K. (2014) Aggregate-Associated Soil Organic Matter as an Ecosystem Property and a Measurement Tool. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, 68, A4-A9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soilbio.2013.06.014
Nigussie, Z., Tsunekawa, A., Haregeweyn, N., Adgo, E., Nohmi, M., Tsubo, M., et al. (2017) Factors Influencing Small-Scale Farmers’ Adoption of Sustainable Land Management Technologies in North-Western Ethiopia. Land Use Policy, 67, 57-64. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2017.05.024
Allen, D.E., Singh, B.P. and Dalal, R.C. (2011) Soil Health Indicators under Climate Change: A Review of Current Knowledge. In: Singh, B., Cowie, A. and Chan, K., Eds., Soil Health and Climate Change, Springer, Berlin, 25-45. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-20256-8_2
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) (2013) Climate-Smart Agriculture Sourcebook. https://www.fao.org/climate-smart-agriculture-sourcebook
Tully, K. and Ryals, R. (2017) Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems: Balancing Food and Environmental Objectives. Agroecology and Sustainable Food Systems, 41, 761-798. https://doi.org/10.1080/21683565.2017.1336149
Adjei, V. and Boafo, L.K. (2019) Maize and Cashew Farming in the Face of Climate Change Variability in the Transitional Zone of Ghana: A Case Study of Nkoranza South Municipality. American Journal of Environmental Sciences, 15, 82-89. https://doi.org/10.3844/ajessp.2019.82.89
FAO and ITPS (2021) Recarbonizing Global Soils—A Technical Manual of Recommended Management Practices: Volume 2—Hot Spots and Bright Spots of Soil Organic Carbon. FAO, Rome.
Bekunda, M., Sanginga, N., and Woomer, P.L. (2010) Chapter Four—Restoring Soil Fertility in Sub-Sahara Africa. Advances in Agronomy, 108, 183-236. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2113(10)08004-1