Pentachlorphenol (PCP) was widely used as a biocide and insecticide for wood preservation. Chlorinated dioxins and furans (2,3,7,8-substituted PCDD and PCDF congeners) were inadvertent byproducts of PCP production. As such, it is an important source of PCDD/F contamination in treated wood and in soil/ sediment near sites that produced or used PCP. It has been noted in the literature, that PCP congener profiles are similar to some combustion profiles, as well as sewage sludge and particulate deposition. In a very broad sense, this is true. OCDD and 1,2,3,4,6,7,8-HpCDD are typically the dominant constituents in these source categories. There is however, a distinct, consistent and repeatable feature in the lower chlorinated tetra, penta and hexa PCDD/F range of PCP related samples: an order of magnitude increase in concentration as a function of degree of chlorination. Because lower chlorinated furans concentrations make up less than 1% of the total PCDD/F in PCP, it is difficult to differentiate PCP from other OCDD dominated source profiles on bargraphs that use a linear-scale y axis. Using a log-scale y axis, however, PCP impacted profiles are obvious, and are not easily confused with congener profiles from other sources.
National Toxicology Program (NTP) (1989) Toxicology and Carcinogenesis Studies of Two Pentachlorophenol Technical-Grade Mixtures in B6C3F1 Mice. NTP Technical Report Series No. 349, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1978) Report of the Ad Hoc Study Group on Pentachlorophenol Contaminants. Environmental Health Advisory Committee, Science Advisory Board, Report EPA/SAB/78/001, 29 December 1978.
Monsanto Chemical Company (1951) Weed Control with Monsanto Santobrite and Santophen 20. St. Louis, MO.
California Environmental Protection Agency (1998) Pentachlorophenol (PCP) Risk Characterization Document. 9 June 1998. http://www.cdpr.ca.gov/docs/risk/rcd/pentachl.pdf
Jensen, S. and Renberg, L. (1972) Contaminants in Pentachlorophenol: Chlorinated Dioxins and Predioxins. Ambio, 1, 62-65.
Crummett, W.B. and Stehl, R.H. (1973) Determination of Chlorinated Dibenzo-p-Dioxins and Dibenzofurans in Various Materials. Environmental Health Perspectives, 5, 15–25.
Firestone, D., Ress, J., Brown, N.L., Barron, R.P. and Damico, J.N. (1973) Determination of Polychlorodibenzo-p-Dioxins and Related Compounds in Commercial Chlorophenols. Journal of Association of Official Analytical Chemists, 55, 85-92.
Plimmer, J.R. (1973) Technical Pentachlorophenol: Origin and Analysis of Base-Insoluble Contaminants. Environmental Health Perspectives, 5, 41-48.
Hagenmaier, H. and Brunner, H. (1987) Isomerspecific Analysis of Pentachlorophenol and Sodium Pentachlorophenate for 2,3,7,8-Substituted PCDD and PCDF at Sub-ppb Levels. Chemosphere, 16, 1759-1764. https://doi.org/10.1016/0045-6535(87)90164-0
Van den Berg, M., Birnbaum, L.S., Denison, M., De Vito, M., Farland, W., Feeley, M., Fiedler, H., Hakansson, H., Hanberg, A., Haws, L., Rose, M., Safe, S., Schrenk, D., Tohyama, C., Tritscher, A., Tuomisto, J., Tysklind, M., Walker, N. and Peterson, R.E. (2006) The 2005 World Health Organization Reevaluation of Human and Mammalian Toxic Equivalency Factors for Dioxins and Dioxin-Like Compounds. Toxicological Sciences, 93, 223-241. https://doi.org/10.1093/toxsci/kfl055
SRC, Inc. (2009) Review of International Soil Levels for Dioxin. Prepared for U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Office of Superfund Remediation and Technology Innovation, Washington DC, 28 December 2009.
Hayward, D.G., Petreas, M.X., Winkler, J.J., Visita, P., McKinney, M. and Stephens, R.D. (1996) Investigation of a Wood Treatment Facility: Impact on an Aquatic Ecosystem in the San Joaquin River, Stockton, CA. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 30, 30-39. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00211326
Dahlgren J, Warshaw R., Horsak R.D., Parker F.M., Takhar, H. (2003) Exposure Assessment of Residents Living near a Wood Treatment Plant. Environmental Research, 92, 99-109. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0013-9351(02)00064-6
GeoTrans, Inc., AMEC, and Groundwater Insight (2003) Koppers Industries, Inc. Grenada Facility, Grenada, Mississippi. Complete Phase II RCRA Facility Investigation Report. Prepared for Beazer East, Inc. Pittsburgh, PA. GeoTrans. Rancho Cordova, CA.
CH2MHill (1997) Remedial Investigation Report for the Wyckoff Soil and Groundwater Operable Units. Wyckoff/Eagle Harbor Superfund Site, Bainbridge Island, Washington DC. Prepared for U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 13 June 1997. https://quicksilver.epa.gov/work/10/1064779.pdf
Öberg, L.G. and Rappe, C. (1992) Biochemical Formation of PCDD/Fs from Chlorophenols. Chemosphere, 25, 49-52. https://doi.org/10.1016/0045-6535(92)90477-9
Baker, J.I. and Hites, R.A. (2000) Is Combustion the Major Source of Polychlorinated Dibenzo-p-Dioxins and Dibenzofurans to the Environment? A Mass Balance Investigation. Environmental Science & Technology, 34, 2879-2886. https://doi.org/10.1021/es9912325
Hassanin, A., Lee, R.G.M., Johnston, A.E. and Jones, K.C. (2006) Reductions and Changing Patterns of Ambient PCDD/Fs in the UK: Evidence and Implications. Chemosphere, 65, 530-539. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2006.01.032
Holt E., Von der Recke, R., Vetter, W., Hawker, D., Alberts, V., Kuch, B., Weber, R. and Gaus, C. (2008) Assessing Dioxin Precursors in Pesticide Formulations and Environmental Samples as a Source of Octachlorodibenzo-p-Dioxin in Soil and Sediment. Environmental Science & Technology, 42, 1472-1478. https://doi.org/10.1021/es071687r
Wenning, R.J., Paustenbach, D.J., Harris, M.A. and Bedbury, H. (1993) Principal Components Analysis of Potential Sources of Polychlorinated Dibenzo-p-Dioxin and Dibenzofuran Residues in Surficial Sediments from Newark Bay, New Jersey. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 24, 271-289. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01128726
Hagenmaier, H., Lindig, C. and She, J. (1994) Correlation of Environmental Occurrence of Polychlorinated Dibenzo-p-Dioxins and Dibenzofurans with Possible Sources. Chemosphere, 29, 2163-2174. https://doi.org/10.1016/0045-6535(94)90383-2
Cleverly, D., Schaum, J., Schweer, G., Becker, J. and Winters, D. (1997) The Congener Profiles of Anthropogenic Sources of Chlorinated Dibenzo-p-Dioxins and Chlorinated Dibenzofurans in the United States. Organohalogen Compounds, 32, 430-435.
Cochran, J. (2016) Characterizing All 136 Tetra-to Octachlorinated Dioxins and Furans. Restek Technical Resources Library. http://www.restek.com/Technical-Resources/Technical-Library/Environmental/env_A030
Schecter, A., Papke, O., Isaac, J., Hrimat, N.S., Neiroukh, F., Safi, J. and El-Nahhal, Y. (1997) 2,3,7,8-Chlorine Substituted Dioxin and Dibenzofuran Congeners in 2,4D, 2,4,5-T and Pentachlorophenol. Organohalogen Compounds, 32, 51-55.
Wilkinson, J. (1997) Letter from John Wilkinson (Pentachlorophenol Task Force) to Matthew Lorber (U.S. EPA/ORD/NCEA). 7 February 1997. Pentachlorophenol Task Force, Washington DC.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2006) An Inventory of Sources and Environmental Releases of Dioxin-Like Compounds in the United States for the Years 1987, 1995, and 2000. Report EPA/600/P-03/002F, November 2006. http://ofmpub.epa.gov/eims/eimscomm.getfile?p_download_id=523391
Van Oostdam, J.C. and Ward, J.E.H. (1995) Dioxins and Furans in the British Columbia Environment. BC Environment, Environmental Protection Department, Victoria, BC, 3 April 1995.
Lorber, M.N., Barton, R.G., Winters, D.L., Bauer, K.M., Davis, M. and Palausky, J. (2002) Investigation of the Potential Release of Polychlorinated Dioxins and Furans from PCP-Treated Utility Poles. Science of the Total Environment, 290, 15-39. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0048-9697(01)01051-8
Masunaga, S., Takasuga, T. and Nakanishia, J. (2001) Dioxin and Dioxin-Like PCB Impurities in Some Japanese Agrochemical Formulations. Chemosphere, 44, 873-885. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0045-6535(00)00310-6
Tondeur, Y., Nestrick, T., Silva, H.A., Vining, B. and Hart, J. (2010) Analytical Procedures for the Determination of Polychlorinated-p-Dioxins, Polychlorinated Dibenzofurans, and Hexachlorobenzene in Pentachlorophenol. Chemosphere, 80, 157-164. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2010.04.001
Clarke, B., Porter, N., Symons, R., Blackbeard, P.A. and Marriott, P. (2008) Dioxin-Like Compounds in Australian Sewage Sludge—Review and National Survey. Chemosphere, 72, 1215-1228. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2008.01.076
Wallenhorst, T., Krauß, P. and Hagenmaier, H. (1997) PCDD/F in Ambient Air and Deposition in Baden-Wurttemberg, Germany. Chemosphere, 34, 1369-1378. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0045-6535(97)00434-7
Wallenhorst, T. (1996) Untersuchungen zur Verteilung und zum luftgetragenen Transport von Polyhalogenierten Dibenzo-p-dioxinen und Dibenzofuranen in Baden-Württemberg. Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Tubingen, Tubingen.
Gertler, A.W., Sagebiel, J.C., Dippel, W.A. and Farina, R.J. (1998) Measurements of Dioxin and Furan Emission Factors from Heavy-Duty Diesel Vehicles. Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association, 48, 276-278. https://doi.org/10.1080/10473289.1998.10463677
Hagenmaier, H., Dawidowsky, V., Weber, U.B., Hutzinger, O., Schwind, K.H., Thoma, H., Essers, U., Buhler, U. and Greiner, R. (1990) Emission of Polyhalogenated Dibenzodioxins and Dibenzofurans from Combustion-Engines. Organohalogen Compounds, 2, 329-334.
Johnson, G.W., Ehrlich, R., Full, W. and Ramos, S. (2015) Principal Components Analysis and Receptor Models in Environmental Forensics. In: Morrison, R. and Murphy, B., Eds., An Introduction to Environmental Forensics, 3rd Edition, Elsevier, Amsterdam, 609-653. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-404696-2.00018-7
WHO (1987) Environmental Health Criteria 71: Pentachlorophenol. International Programme on Chemical Safety, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland, CH-1211.
IRPTC (1983) Data Profile on Pentachlorophenol, Geneva, International Register of Potentially Toxic Chemicals, United Nations Environment Programme.