Environmental determinants causing unexpected disease rampant are seemed major challenges to be protective from inevitable hazards and to deal the future consequences in terms of human health loss. This paper explores the major environmental determinants stimulating disease prevalence in western hilly areas of Nepal. Cross-sectional analytical research design for household level primary data was treated with the binary logit regression model to identify the determinants of disease prevalence. Extreme winter temperature, decreasing winter rainfall, sporadic rain, drying spout and decreasing the tree species are the major environmental determinants; hand washing, proper management of solid waste from kitchen and habit of drinking boiled water are as household behavioral determinants; and adequate family members, higher education, use of pesticide to control the insects and use of clean cooking fuels are socioeconomic determinants encouraging disease prevalence. Plantation of large perennial and medicinal plants, proper management of warm clothes or heaters especially for old people and children having respiratory problems for extreme winter; management of water tank for long drought in winter and community awareness campaign for the protection of spout are urgent needs for the prevention of current disease prevalence. Ergo, the recommendations are made accordingly.
World Health Organization (2009) Global Health Risks: Mortality and Burden of Disease Attributable to Selected Major Risks. World Health Organization, 87, 646-646.
Paudel, U. (2018) A Review of Effects of Environmental Change on Human Health. American Journal of Environment Science, 14, 95-109. https://doi.org/10.3844/ajessp.2018.95.109
Kumaresan, J., Narain, J.P. and Sathiakumar, N. (2011) Climate Change and Health in South East Asia. International Journal of Climate Change Strategies and Management, 3, 200-208. https://doi.org/10.1108/17568691111129020
Malik, A., Grohmann, E. and Akhtar, R. (2014) Environmental Deterioration and Human: Natural and Anthropogenic Determinants. Springer, Berlin. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-7890-0
World Health Organization (2014) Strengthening Health Resilience to Climate Change. World Health Organization, Geneva, 24-28.
Mendelsohn, R. and Olmstead, S. (2009) The Economic Valuation of Environmental Amenities and Disamenities: Methods and Applications. Annual Review of Environment and Resources, 34, 325-347. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-environ-011509-135201
Kumar, V., Mangal, A., Panesar, S., Yadav, G., Talwar, R., Raut, D., et al. (2014) Forecasting Malaria Cases Using Climatic Factors in Delhi, India: a Time Series Analysis. Malaria Research and Treatment, 14, 82-85.
McMichael, A.J. (2013) Globalization, Climate Change, and Human Health. The New England Journal of Medicine, 368, 1335-1343. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMra1109341
Dhimal, M., Ahrens, B. and Kuch, U. (2015) Climate Change and Spatiotemporal Distributions of Vector-Borne Diseases in Nepal—A Systematic Synthesis of Literature. PLoS ONE, 10, 23-32. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0129869
Central Beaurau of Statistics (2016) National Climate Change Impact Survey 2016. CBS, Kathmandu.
McDowell, G., Ford, J.D., Lehner, B., Berrang-Ford, L. and Sherpa, A. (2013) Climate-Related Hydrological Change and Human Vulnerability in Remote Mountain Regions: A Case Study from Khumbu, Nepal. Regional Environmental Change, 13, 299-310. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-012-0333-2
Panthi, J., Aryal, S., Dahal, P., Bhandari, P., Krakauer, N.Y. and Pandey, V.P. (2016) Livelihood Vulnerability Approach to Assessing Climate Change Impacts on Mixed Agro-Livestock Smallholders around the Gandaki River Basin in Nepal. Regional Environmental Change, 16, 1121-1132. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-015-0833-y
Dahal, S. (2008) Climatic Determinants of Malaria and Kala-Azar in Nepal. Reg. Heal. Forum, 12, 32-37.
CBS (2012) National Population and Housing Census 2011 (National Report). Gov. Nepal, Natl. Plan. Comm. Secr. Cent. Bureau Stat., 1, 1-278.
Nepal Health Research Council (2007) National Workshop on Climate Change and Human Health: Potential Impact, Vulnerability and Adaptation in Nepal. Journal of Nepal Health Research Council, 1-117.
Bhandari, G.P., Dixit, S.M. and Ghimire, U.M. (2009) Outbreak Investigation of Diarrheal Diseases in Jajarkot. Journal of Nepal Health Research Council, 7, 66-68.
Pant, D., Tenzin, T., Chand, R., Sharma, B. and Bist, P. (2017) Spatio-Temporal Epidemiology of Japanese Encephalitis in Nepal, 2007-2015. PLoS One, 12, e0180591. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0180591
Hijioka, Y., Lin, E., Pereira, J.J., Corlett, R.T., Cui, X., Insarov, G.E., Lasco, R.D., Lindgren, E. and Surjan, A. (2014) Asia. In: Barros, V.R., Field, C.B., Dokken, D.J., Mastrandrea, M.D., Mach, K.J., Bilir, T.E., Chatterjee, M., Ebi, K.L., Estrada, Y.O., Genova, R.C., Girma, B., Kissel, E.S., Levy, A.N., MacCracken, S., Mastrandrea, P.R. and White, L.L., Eds., Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Part B: Regional Aspects. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1327-1370.
Gamble, J.L., Ebi, K.L., Sussman F.G., Wilbanks, T.J., Reid, C., Thomas, J.V., Weaver, C.P., Harris, M. and Freed, R. (2008) Executive Summary. In: Analyses of the Effects of Global Change on Human Health and Welfare and Human Systems, A Report by the U.S. Climate Change Science Program and the Subcommittee on Global Change Research, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington DC, 1-11.
Atchison, C., Iturriza-Gómara, M., Tam, C. and Lopman, B. (2010) Spatiotemporal Dynamics of Rotavirus Disease in Europe. The Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal, 29, 1. https://doi.org/10.1097/INF.0b013e3181d06fcd
Centers for Disease Control (2004) Respiratory Syncytial Virus Activity—United States, 2003-2004. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 53, 1159-1160.
Badu, M. (2012) Assessing the Impact of Climate Change on Human Health: Status and Trends of Malaria and Diarrhea with Respect to Temperature and Rainfall Variability in Nepal. Katandu Univ. J. Sci. Technol., 8, 134-141.
Viorel-Ilie, A., Corina, A., Ozunu, A., Nour, E., Rosian, G. and Muntean, L.O. (2011) The Relation between the Landslide Activity and Irregular Rainfall and Snowmelt in the Codrului Hills, Romania. Environmental Engineering and Management Journal, 10, 3-6. https://doi.org/10.30638/eemj.2011.001
Rozendaal, J.A. (1992) Relations between Anopheles Darlingi Breeding Habitats, Rainfall, River Level and Malaria Transmission Rates in the Rain Forest of Suriname. Medical and Veterinary Entomology, 6, 16-22. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2915.1992.tb00029.x
Young, H.S., Wood, C.L., Kilpatrick, A.M., Lafferty, K.D., Nunn, C.L. and Vincent. J.R. (2017) Conservation, Biodiversity and Infectious Disease: Scientific Evidence and Policy Implications. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 372, Article ID: 20160124. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2016.0124
Ostfeld, R.S. (2017) Biodiversity Loss and the Ecology of Infectious Disease. The Lancet Planetary Health, 1, e2-e3. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2542-5196(17)30010-4
Mishra, S.R., Bhandari, P.M., Issa, R., Neupane, D., Gurung, S. and Khanal, V. (2015) Climate Change and Adverse Health Events: Community Perceptions from the Tanahu District of Nepal. Environmental Research Letters, 10, Article ID: 034007. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/10/3/034007
Asian Development Bank (2013) Country Environment Note—Nepal. Asian Development Bank, Mandaluyong.
Bowen, K.J. and Ebi, K.L. (2017) Health Risks of Climate Change in the World Health Organization South-East Asia Region. WHO South-East Asia Journal of Public Health, 6, 4-9. https://doi.org/10.4103/2224-3151.213789
World Health Organization (2017). WHO South-East Asia Report. World Health Organization, 6, 1-98.
World Health Organization (2016) Protecting Surface Water for Health—Identifying, Assessing, and Managing Drinking-Water Quality Risks in Surface-Water Catchments. World Health Organization, Geneva, 196.
Joshi, P.C., Kaushal, S., Aribam, B.S., Khattri, P., D’Aoust, O., Singh, M.M., et al. (2011) Recurrent Floods and Prevalence of Diarrhea among under Five Children: Observations from Bahraich District, Uttar Pradesh, India. Global Health Action, 4, 1-8. https://doi.org/10.3402/gha.v4i0.6355
Oriakhi, H.O., Onemolease, E.A., Health, N., Scheme, I. and State, E. (2012) Determinants of Rural Household’s Willingness to Participate in Community Based Health Insurance Scheme in Edo State, Nigeria. Studies on Ethno-Medicine, 6, 95-102. https://doi.org/10.1080/09735070.2012.11886425
Hajat, S., Vardoulakis, S., Heaviside, C. and Eggen, B. (2014) Climate Change Effects on Human Health: Projections of Tempera-ture-Related Mortality for the UK during the 2020s, 2050s and 2080s. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 68, 641-648. https://doi.org/10.1136/jech-2013-202449
Paudel, U., Khatri, U. and Pant, K.P. (2018) Understanding the Determinants of Household Cooking Fuel Choice in Afghanistan: A Multinomial Logit Estimation. Energy, 156, 55-62. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2018.05.085
Pant, K.P. (2012) Cheaper Fuel and Higher Health Costs among the Poor in Rural Nepal. Ambio, 41, 271-283.
Food and Agriculture Organization (2009) The State of Food and Agriculture 2009: Livestock in the Balance. FAO, Rome.
Hunter, P.R. (2003) Climate Change and Waterborne and Vector-Borne Disease. Journal of Applied Microbiology, 94, 37-46. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2672.94.s1.5.x