The main objective of this study is to develop a new protocol for bench-scale dispersant effectiveness testing adapted for subsea dispersants injection (SSDI). The new approach includes turbulence conditions, dispersant injection techniques and quantification of effectiveness, more representative for a SSDI operation. Results from the new system are compared to dispersant effectiveness measured with established laboratory methods, used for screening dispersants for surface application. The most significant result is that the dispersant ranking obtained with the new test relevant for subsea releases was very different compared to the ranking obtained by screening methods used for surface application of dispersants. This strongly indicates that existing standard methods for dispersant effectiveness testing designed for simulating conditions relevant for surface application of dispersants, are less relevant for SSDI effectiveness testing and justify the need for a more relevant method. Such a Dispersant Injection Effectiveness Test (DIET) is suggested and documented in this study.
Mackay, D. and Szeto, F. (1980) Effectiveness of Oil Spill Dispersants—Development of a Laboratory Method and Results for Selected Commercial Products. Institute of Env. Studies, University of Toronto, Toronto, Publ. No. EE-16.
Martinelli, F.N. (1984) The Status of the Warren Spring Laboratory’s Rolling Flask Test. In: Allen, T.E., Ed., Oil Spill Chemical Dispersants: Research, Experience and Recommendations, STP 840, American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, 55-68. https://doi.org/10.1520/STP30228S
Bocard, C., Castaing, C.G. and Gatellier, C. (1984) Chemical Oil Dispersion in Trials at Sea and in Laboratory Tests: The Key Role of the Dilution Process. In: Allen, T.E., Ed., Oil Spill Chemical Dispersants: Research, Experience and Recommendations, ASTM STP 840, American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, 125-142. https://doi.org/10.1520/STP30233S
Becker, K.W., Coker, L.G. and Walsh, M.A. (1991) A Method for Evaluating Oil-Spill Dispersants Exxon Dispersant Effectiveness Test (EXDET). OCEANS 91 Proceedings, Honolulu, 1-3 October 1991, 1486-1490.
Venosa, A.D., King, D.W. and Sorial, G.A. (2002) The Baffled Flask Test for Dispersant Effectiveness: A Round Robin Evaluation of Reproducibility and Repeatability. Spill Science & Technology Bulletin, 7, 299-308. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1353-2561(02)00072-5
Sorial, G.A., Venosa, A.D., Miller, K.M., Holder, E.L. and King, D.W. (2004) Oil Spill Dispersant Effectiveness Protocol—Part I. Impact of Operational Variables. Journal of Environmental Engineering, 130, 1073-1084. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9372(2004)130:10(1073)
Sorial, G.A., Venosa, A.D., Miller, K.M., Holder, E. and King, D.W. (2004) Oil Spill Dispersant Effectiveness Protocol. Part II. Performance of the Revised Protocol. Journal of Environmental Engineering Division, 130, 1085-1093. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9372(2004)130:10(1085)
Kaku, V.J., Boufadel, M.C. and Venosa, A.D. (2006) Evaluation of Mixing Energy in Laboratory Flasks Used for Dispersant Effectiveness Testing. Journal of Environmental Engineering, 132, 93-101. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9372(2006)132:1(93)
Zhao, L., Wang, B., Armenante, P., Conmy, R. and Boufadel, M. (2015) Characterization of Turbulent Properties in the EPA Baffled Flask for Dispersion Effectiveness Testing. Journal of Environmental Engineering, 142, Article ID: 04015044. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)EE.1943-7870.0001000
Desmarquest, J.P., Croquette, J., Merlin, F., Bocard, C., Castaing, G. and Gatellier, C. (1985) Recent Advances in Dispersant Effectiveness Evaluation: Experimental and Field Aspects. International Oil Spill Conference Proceedings, Los Angeles, 25-28 February 1985, 445-452. https://doi.org/10.7901/2169-3358-1985-1-445
Belore, R., Trudel, K., Mullin, V.J. and Guarino, A. (2009) Large-Scale Cold Water Dispersant Effectiveness Experiments with Alaskan Crude Oils and Corexit 9500 and 9527 Dispersants. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 58, 118-128. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2008.08.013
Trudel, B.K., Belore, R.C., Lewis, A., Guarino, A. and Mullins, J. (2005) Determining the Viscosity Limits for Effective Chemical Dispersion: Relating Ohmsett Results to Those from Test At-Sea. In: International Oil Spill Conference, Miami Beach, Florida USA, May 2005, 71-76. https://doi.org/10.7901/2169-3358-2005-1-71
Belore, R. (2015) Wave Tank Dispersant Effectiveness Tests on Alaskan Crude Oils. Proceedings of the 38th AMOP Technical Seminar, Ottawa, 2 June 2015, 687-702.
Holder, E.L., Conmy, R.N. and Venosa, A.D. (2015) Comparative Laboratory-Scale Testing of Dispersant Effectiveness of 23 Crude Oils Using Four Different Testing Protocols. Journal of Environmental Protection, 6, 628-639. https://doi.org/10.4236/jep.2015.66057
Lunel, T., Davies, L. and Brandvik, P.J. (1995) Field Trials to Determine Dispersant Effectiveness at Sea. Proceedings of the 18th AMOP Technical Seminar, Ottawa, 14-16 June 1995, 603-627. https://doi.org/10.7901/2169-3358-1995-1-147
Lunel, T. and Wood, P.A. (1996) A Laboratory Dispersant Effectiveness Test Which Reflects Dispersant Efficiency in the Field. Proceedings of the 19th AMOP Technical Seminar, Ottawa, 461-480.
Daling, P.S. and Lichtenthaler, R.G. (1986) Chemical Dispersion of Oil. Comparison of the Effectiveness Results Obtained in Laboratory and Small-Scale Field Tests. Oil & Chemical Pollution, 3, 19-35. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0269-8579(86)80011-9
Brandvik, P.J., Lunel, T., Daling, P.S. and Lewis, A. (1995) Measurements of Dispersed Oil Concentrations by In-Situ UV Fluorescence during the Norwegian Experimental Oil Spill 1994 with Sture Blend. Proceedings of the 18th AMOP Technical Seminar, Ottawa, 14-16 June 1995, 519-535.
Faksness, L.-G., Brandvik, P.J., Daling, P.S., Singsaas, I. and Sorstrom, S.E. (2016) The Value of Offshore Field Experiments in Oil Spill Technology Development for Norwegian Waters. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 111, 402-410. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2016.07.035
Daling, P.S., Brandvik, P.J., Mackay, D. and Johansen, O. (1990) Characterisation of Crude Oils for Environmental Purposes. Oil and Chemical Pollution, 7, 199-224. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0269-8579(05)80027-9
Daling, P.S., Leirvik, F., Reed, M., Almas, I.K., Brandvik, P.J., Hansen, B.H., Lewis, A. and Reed, M. (2014) Surface Weathering and Dispersibility of Macondo MC252 Crude Oil. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 87, 300-310. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2014.07.005
Brandvik, P.J., Johansen, O., Leirvik, F., Farooq, U. and Daling, P.S. (2013) Droplet Breakup in Sub-Surface Oil Releases—Part 1: Experimental Study of Droplet Breakup and Effectiveness of Dispersant Injection. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 73, 319-326. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2013.05.020
Andreassen, I., Johnsen, M. and Leirvik, F. (2013) Weathering Studies of Maria Crude Oil. SINTEF Report No. A24674 (Unrestricted), Trondheim, August 2015.
Hellstrom, K.C., Johnsen, M. and Krause, D.F. (2015) Brynhild Crude Oil—Properties and Behaviour at Sea. SINTEF Report No. A27135 (Unrestricted), Trondheim, August 2015.
Andrews, S., Nover, D. and Schladow, S.G. (2010) Using Laser Diffraction Data to Obtain Accurate Particle Size Distributions: The Role of Particle Composition. Limnology & Oceanography: Methods, 8, 507-526. https://doi.org/10.4319/lom.2010.8.507
Karp-Boss, L., Azevedo, L. and Boss, E. (2007) LISST-100 Measurements of Phytoplankton Size Distribution: Evaluation of the Effects of Cell Shape. Limnology and Oceanography: Methods, 5, 396-406. https://doi.org/10.4319/lom.2007.5.396
Davies, E.J., Nimmo-Smith, W.A.M., Agrawal, Y.C. and Souza, A.J. (2012) LISST-100 Response to Large Particles. Marine Geology, 307-310, 117-122. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.margeo.2012.03.006
Davies, B. and Leirvik (2017) The Use of Spectral Transmittance Imaging to Size and Classify Suspended Particulate Matter in Seawater. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 115, 402-410. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2016.11.063
Brandvik, P.J., Johansen, O., Leirvik, F., Krause, D.F. and Daling, P.S. (2018) Subsea Dispersants Injection (SSDI), Effectiveness of Different Dispersant Injection Techniques—An Experimental Approach. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 139, 385-393. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2018.09.021
Johansen, O., Brandvik, P.J. and Farooq, U. (2013) Droplet Breakup in Sub-Surface Oil Releases—Part 2: Predictions of Droplet Size Distributions with and without Injection of Chemical Dispersants. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 73, 327-335. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2013.04.012
Coolbaugh, T. and Cox, R. (2015) Development of a Bench Scale Effectiveness Test for Subsea Dispersant Use: An Oil Spill Response Joint Industry Project of the International Association of Oil and Gas Producers and IPIECA. Proceedings of the 38th AMOP Technical Seminar, Environment Canada, Ottawa, 703-714.