This article explores two phenomena involved in business ethics: emotions and dilemmas. We analyze the role of emotions in moral philosophy and its practical application in organizations. The interest in emotions reappears because of the role they play in the management of a dilemma, where emotions can be perceived as a catalyst or as a choice mechanism between alternative options in the process of resolving a dilemma. Suggesting a typology of dilemmas inspired by Lemmon, we present a theoretical model linking together emotions and reason depending on the nature of the dilemma. Five types of dilemmas are described in this article. We classify them around two axes: the nature of the situation and the nature of norms involved in these situations. The role of the faculties of emotion and reason will be explored according to the nature of the dilemma. At the end of the article, a series of research propositions concerning the attitude of the individual towards their emotions and their reason will be formulated for future research.
KeywordsEmotionsEthical DilemmaTypologyEthicRationality and Reason
Alvino, L., & Franco, M. (2017). The Decision-Making Process between Rationality and Emotions. International Journal of Scientific Research and Management, 5, 7074-7092. https://doi.org/10.18535/ijsrm/v5i9.18
Aristotle (1972). Aristote: Ethique à Nicomaque . J. Vrin.
Ashkanasy, N. M., Zerbe, W. J., & Hartel, C. E. (2016). Managing Emotions in the Workplace . Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315290812
Bagnoli, C. (2000). Il dilemma morale ei limiti della teoria etica . LED Edizioni Universitarie.
Bagnoli, C. (2022). Agency and the Emotions. In The Routledge Handbook of Philosophy of Agency (pp. 317-328). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429202131-36
Bélanger, M. (2011). Existe-t-il des dilemmes moraux insolubles ? Harmattan.
Ben-Ze’ev, A. (2003). The Logic of Emotions. In A. Hatzimoysis (Eds.), Philosophy and the Emotions (pp. 147-162). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511550270.010
Bernhard, F., & Labaki, R. (2021). Moral Emotions in Family Businesses: Exploring Vicarious Guilt of the Next Generation. Family Business Review , 34 , 193-212. https://doi.org/10.1177/0894486520941944
Bird, F. (2002). The Muted Conscience: Moral Silence and the Practice of Ethics in Bus i ness . Quorum.
Blasi, A. (1999). Emotions and Moral Motivation. Journal for the Theory of Social Beh a viour , 29, 1-19. https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-5914.00088
Cabral, A. M. R., & de Oliveira Carvalho, F. M. P. (2014). Emotional Intelligence and Ethics on Organizations. Open Journal of Busines s and Management , 2, 5-23. https://doi.org/10.4236/ojbm.2014.21004
Chen, A., Treviño, L. K., & Humphrey, S. E. (2020). Ethical Champions, Emotions, Framing, and Team Ethical Decision Making. Journal of App lied Psychology , 105 , 245-273. https://doi.org/10.1037/apl0000437
Cherré, B. (2008). Étude des représentations philosophiques mobilisées par les gestio n naires lors d’une décision éthique (465 p.). These, Université de Montréal et HEC Montréal (Canada).
Cherré, B. (2011). Décision éthique des managers et le sens du travail. Revue Sciences de Gestion , 83 , 83-100.
Cherré, B. (2013). Le dilemme éthique authentique: Vers sa compréhension et son application en gestion. (Im)pertinences-Revue de l’Académie de l’Éthique , No . 2, 57-72.
Cherré, B., & Volkov, I. (2022). Ethical Dilemma and Its Resolution: Managers’ Perspectives. International Journal of B usiness and Social Science , 13, 29-39.
Chiari, C., & de Morais, M. L. (2024). Moral Judgment Competence: The Main Theoretical Contributions of Piaget, Kohlberg, and Lind. In Studies on Moral Competence: Proposals and Dilemmas for Discussion (pp. 67-76). Springer Nature Switzerland. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-52139-3_5
Connelly, S., Helton-Fauth, W., & Mumford, M. D. (2004). A Managerial In-Basket Study of the Impact of Trait Emotions on Ethical Choice. Journal of Business Ethics , 51, 245-267. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:BUSI.0000032494.51162.d3
Cooper, J. M. (2021). Reason and Emotion: Essays on Ancient Moral Psychology and Ethical Theory . Princeton University Press. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv182jt48
Damasio, A. R. (2001). Descartes Error Revisited. Journal of the History of the Neuro s ciences, 10, 192-194. https://doi.org/10.1076/jhin.10.2.192.7250
Damasio, A., & Damasio, H. (2006). Minding the Body. Daedalus, 135, 15-22. http://www.jstor.org/stable/20028048
De Sousa, R. (1990). The Rationality of Emotion . The MIT Press.
De Sousa, R. (1996). Émotions. In M. Canto-Sperber (Ed.), Dictionnaire d’éthique et de philosophie morale . Presses Universitaires de France.
Deonna, J., & Teroni, F. (2012). The Emotions: A Philosophical Introduction . Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203721742
Duhamel, A. (2003). Une éthique sans point de vue moral: La pensée éthique de Bernard Williams . Presses de l’Université Laval.
Eisenberg, N. (2000). Emotion, Regulation, and Moral Development. Annual Review of Psychology, 51 , 665-697. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.51.1.665
Fisher, C., & Lovell, A. (2009). Business Ethics and Values: Individual , Corporate and I n ternational Perspectives . Pearson Education.
Foot, P. (1983). Moral Realism and Moral Dilemma. The J ournal of Philosophy , 80, 379-398. https://doi.org/10.2307/2026455
Fulmer, I. S., & Barry, B. (2009). Managed Hearts and Wallets: Ethical Issues in Emotional Influence by and within Organizations. Business Ethic s Quarterly , 19 , 155-191. https://doi.org/10.5840/beq200919210
Gaspar, J. P., Methasani, R., & Schweitzer, M. E. (2022). Emotional Intelligence and Deception: A Theoretical Model and Propositions. Journal of Business Ethics , 177 , 567-584.
Gaudine, A., & Thorne, L. (2001). Emotion and Ethical Decision-Making in Organizations. Journal of Business Ethics , 31, 175-187. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1010711413444
Geva, A. (2006). A Typology of Moral Problems in Business: A Framework for Ethical Management. Journal of Business Ethics, 69, 133-147. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-006-9072-y
Gowans, C. W. (1987). Moral Dilemmas . Oxford University Press.
Greene, J. & Haidt, J. (2002). How (and Where) Does Moral Judgment Work? Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 6, 517-523.
Greenspan, P. (1988). Emotions and Reasons: An Inquiry into Emotional Justification . Oxford University Press.
Greenspan, P. S. (1995). Practical Guilt: Mo ral Dilemmas, Emotions, and Social No rms . Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780195087628.001.0001
Haidt, J. (2001). The Emotional Dog and Its Rational Tail: A Social Intuitionist Approach to Moral Judgment. Psy chological Review, 108 , 814-834. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.108.4.814
Haidt, J. (2003). The Moral Emotions. In K. R. S. R. J. Davidson, & H. H. Goldsmith (Eds.), Handbook of Affective Sciences (pp. 852-870). Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780195126013.003.0045
Helion, C., & Pizarro, D. A. (2015). Beyond Dual-Processes: The Interplay of Reason and Emotion in Moral Judgment. In J. O. Clausen, & N. Levy (Eds.), Handbook of Ne u roethics (pp. 109-125). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-4707-4_160
Henik, E. (2008). Mad as Hell or Scared Stiff? The Effects of Value Conflict and Emotions on Potential Whistle-Blowers. Jour nal of Business Ethics , 80, 111-119. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-007-9441-1
Huebner, B., Dwyer, S., & Hauser, M. (2009). The Role of Emotion in Moral Psychology. Trends in Cognitive Sciences , 13, 1-6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2008.09.006
Hume, D. (1991). Enquête sur les principes de la morale . Flammarion.
Kant, I. (1949). Critique of Pra ctical Reason and Other Writings in Moral Philosop hy . University of Chicago Press.
Khalil, O. E. M. (1993). Artificial Decision-Making and Artificial Ethics: A Management Concern. Jour nal of Business Ethics , 12, 313-313. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01666535
Kim, D. (2022). Promoting Professional Socialization: A Synthesis of Durkheim, Kohlberg, Hoffman, and Haidt for Professional Ethics Education. Business and Professional Ethics Journal, 41, 93-114. https://doi.org/10.5840/bpej202216115
Klein, S. (2002). The Head, the Heart, and Business Virtues. Journal of Business Ethics, 39, 347-359. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1019762707218
Kohlberg, L. (1976). Moral Stages and Moralization: The Cognitive-Developmental Approach. In T. Lickona (Ed.), Moral Development and Behavior: Theory and Research and Social Issues (pp. 31-53). Holt, Rienhart, and Winston.
LaGrandeur, K. (2015). Emotion, Artificial Intelligence, and Ethics. In J. Romportl, E. Zackova, & J. Kelemen (Eds.), Beyond Artificial Intelligence: The Disappearing H u man-Machine Divide (pp. 97-109). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-09668-1_7
Lemmon, E. J. (1962). Moral Dilemmas. Philosophical Reviews, 71 , 150. https://doi.org/10.2307/2182983
Levine, E. E., & Schweitzer, M. E. (2015). Prosocial Lies: When Deception Breeds Trust. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes , 126 , 88-106. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2014.10.007
Linehan, C., & O’Brien, E. (2017). From Tell-Tale Signs to Irreconcilable Struggles: The Value of Emotion in Exploring the Ethical Dilemmas of Human Resource Professionals. Journal of Business Ethics , 141 , 763-777. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-016-3040-y
Lurie, Y. (2004). Humanizing Business through Emotions: On the Role of Emotions in Ethics. Journal of Busi ness Ethics , 49, 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:BUSI.0000013851.16825.51
Lurie, Y., & Albin, R. (2007). Moral Dilemmas in Business Ethics: From Decision Procedures to Edifying Perspectives. Journ al of Business Ethics , 71, 195-207. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-006-9134-1
Maciejovsky, B., Schwarzenberger, H., & Kirchler, E. (2012). Rationality versus Emotions: The Case of Tax Ethics and Compliance. Journal of Business Ethics , 109, 339-350. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-011-1132-2
Mikolajczak, M., Quoidbach, J., Kotsou, I., & Nelis, D. (2023). L es compétences émotio n nelles . Dunod. https://doi.org/10.3917/dunod.mikol.2023.01.xix
Mills, J. S. (1993). Utili tarianism, on Liberty, Considerations on Representative Gover n ment . Everyman.
Monin, B., Pizarro, D. A., & Beer, J. S. (2007). Deciding versus Reacting: Conceptions of Moral Judgment and the Reason-Affect Debate. Review of General Psychology, 11, 99-111. https://doi.org/10.1037/1089-2680.11.2.99
Monin, B., Sawyer, P. J., & Marquez, M. J. (2008). The Rejection of Moral Rebels: Resenting Those Who Do the Right Thing. Journal of Personality and So cial Psychology, 95 , 76-93. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.95.1.76
Prinz, J. (2006). The Emotional Basis of Moral Judgments. Philosop hical Explorations , 9, 29-43. https://doi.org/10.1080/13869790500492466
Rest, J. R. (1982). A Psychologist Looks at the Teaching of Ethics. Hastings Center Report, 12, 29-36. https://doi.org/10.2307/3560621
Sartre, J. P. (1943). L’être et le né ant . Gallimard.
Sartre, J. P. (1990). L’existentialisme est un human ism e . Seuil.
Sartre, J. P. (1996). L’existentialisme est un humanisme. Folio.
Sartre, J.-P. (1995). Esquisse d’une théorie des emotions . Hermann.
Schwartz, M. S. (2016). Ethical Decision-Making Theory: An Integrated Approach. Jou r nal of Business Ethics , 139 , 755-776. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-015-2886-8
Schweitzer, M. E., & Gibson, D. E. (2008). Fairness, Feelings, and Ethical Decision-Making: Consequences of Violating Community Standards of Fairness. Journal of Business Ethics, 77 , 287-287. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-007-9350-3
Shipley, N. J., & van Riper, C. J. (2022). Pride and Guilt Predict Pro-Environmental Behavior: A Meta-Analysis of Correlational and Experimental Evidence. Journal of E nv i ronmental Psychology , 79 , Article ID: 101753. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvp.2021.101753
Solomon, R. C. (2010). The Philosophy of Emotions. In M. D. Lewis, J. M. Haviland-Jones, & L. F. Barrett (Eds.), Handbook of Emotions . Guilford Press.
Tahssain-Gay, L., & Cherre B. (2012). Le comportement éthique est-il mesurable? Réflexion autour des dilemmes. Revue Gestion 2000 , 29, 15-29. https://doi.org/10.3917/g2000.295.0015
Tenbrunsel, A. E., & Smith-Crowe, K. (2008). 13 Ethical Decision Making: Where We’ve Been and Where We’re Going. The Academy of Ma nagement Annals, 2, 545-607. https://doi.org/10.5465/19416520802211677
Teper, R., Zhong, C. B., & Inzlicht, M. (2015). How Emotions Shape Moral Behavior: Some Answers (and Questions) for the Field of Moral Psychology. Soc ial and Persona l ity Psychology Compass , 9 , 1-14. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12154
Trevino, L. K. (1986). Ethical decision making in organizations: A Person-Situation Interactionist Model. The Academy of Management Review, 11, 601-617. https://doi.org/10.2307/258313
Treviño, L. K., & Nelson, K. A. (2021). Managing Business Ethics: Straight Talk about How to Do It Right . John Wiley & Sons.
Treviño, L. K., Weaver, G. R., & Reynolds, S. J. (2006). Behavioral Ethics in Organizations: A Review. Journal of Management, 32 , 951-990. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206306294258
Vélez García, A. E., & Ostrosky-Solís, F. (2006). From Morality to Moral Emotions. I n ternational Journal of Psychology , 41, 348-354. https://doi.org/10.1080/00207590500345898
Vitell, S. J., King, R. A., & Singh, J. J. (2013). A Special Emphasis and Look at the Emotional Side of Ethical Decision-Making. AMS Review , 3 , 74-85. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13162-013-0042-0
Williams, B. (1981). Moral Luck: Philosophical Papers 1973-198 0 . Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139165860
Williams, B. (2016). Essa ys and Reviews: 1959-2 002 . Princeton University Press. https://doi.org/10.1515/9781400848393