Reviewing the SAE Levels of Driving Automation and Research Gaps to Accelerate the Development of a Quantum-Safe CCAM Infrastructure — Oak Academic Publishing
Research ArticleOpen AccessGoogle Scholar indexed
Reviewing the SAE Levels of Driving Automation and Research Gaps to Accelerate the Development of a Quantum-Safe CCAM Infrastructure
Based on a review of 28 Horizon Europe-funded CCAM projects, this paper studies the current state of Connected, Cooperative, and Automated Mobility (CCAM) and identifies significant research gaps in taxonomy, cybersecurity, Artificial Intelligence (AI) and 6G research, that hinder the advancement of a future-ready CCAM infrastructure. The research emphasizes the crucial role of infrastructure in achieving autonomous mobility, shifting focus from the current vehicle-centric approach. It critiques the SAE J3016 taxonomy for its lack of emphasis on infrastructure and proposes an updated framework with an automation level dedicated to infrastructure automation. The paper highlights the existential threats posed by Quantum Computers (QC) and AI, stressing the need for quantum-safe cybersecurity measures and an ethical, controllable AI framework proposing a decentralized Collective Artificial Super Intelligence (CASI) framework. Identifying the critical need for a cooperative approach involving Road and Transport Authorities (RTAs) to achieve 100% vehicle connectivity and robust digital infrastructure, the study outlines the European Commission’s Vision 2050 goals, aiming for zero fatalities, zero emissions, and sustainable mobility. The paper concludes by providing recommendations for future research directions to accelerate the development of a comprehensive, secure, and efficient CCAM ecosystem.
Edvardsson Björnberg, K. (2022) Vision Zero and Other Road Safety Targets. In: Edvardsson Björnberg, K., Belin, M.Å., Hansson, S.O. and Tingvall, C., Eds., The Vision Zero Handbook , Springer, 1-27. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-23176-7_1-1
WHO (2023) Road Traffic Injuries. WHO Newsroom. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/road-traffic-injuries
Chen, S., Kuhn, M., Prettner, K. and Bloom, D.E. (2019) The Global Macroeconomic Burden of Road Injuries: Estimates and Projections for 166 Countries. The Lancet Planetary Health , 3, e390-e398. https://doi.org/10.1016/s2542-5196(19)30170-6
European Commission (2011) Roadmap to a Single European Transport Area—Toward a Competitive and Resource-Efficient Transport System. https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:52011DC0144
Novat, N., Kidando, E., Kutela, B. and Kitali, A.E. (2023) A Comparative Study of Collision Types between Automated and Conventional Vehicles Using Bayesian Probabilistic Inferences. Journal of Safety Research , 84, 251-260. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsr.2022.11.001
Almaskati, D., Kermanshachi, S. and Pamidimukkala, A. (2024) Investigating the Impacts of Autonomous Vehicles on Crash Severity and Traffic Safety. Frontiers in Built Environment , 10, Article 1383144. https://doi.org/10.3389/fbuil.2024.1383144
Liu, Q., Wang, X., Wu, X., Glaser, Y. and He, L. (2021) Crash Comparison of Autonomous and Conventional Vehicles Using Pre-Crash Scenario Typology. Accident Analysis & Prevention , 159, Article ID: 106281. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aap.2021.106281
Petrović, Đ., Mijailović, R. and Pešić, D. (2020) Traffic Accidents with Autonomous Vehicles: Type of Collisions, Manoeuvres and Errors of Conventional Vehicles’ Drivers. Transportation Research Procedia , 45, 161-168. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trpro.2020.03.003
Vaillant, L., Eyssartier, C., Douet, M., Dewailly, B., Cavagnet-to, N., et al. (2022) Initial Target Vision for Multimodal Traffic Management Ecosystem: ORCHESTRA Project Deliverable: D2.1—Version 1.1. D2.1—V1.1, European Commission—DG Research. https://hal.science/hal-04029880/file/D2.1%20Initial%20target%20vision%20-%20H2020%20ORCHESTRA.pdf
Wachsmuth, J., et al . (2022). The European Commission’s 2050 Vision “A Clean Planet for All”—Implications for Sector Strategies and Climate Governance. Ressortforschungsplan of the Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation, Nuclear Safety and Consumer Protection. https://www.umweltbundesamt.de/sites/default/files/medien/479/publikationen/cc_17-2022_the_european_commissions_2050_vision.pdf
Garrote, P.A. (2020) Towards Cooperative, Connected, and Autonomous Mobility: Contributions of Horizon Europe Projects Managed by CINEA. https://www.ccam.eu/wp-content/uploads/2023/05/HE-CCAM-2023_brochure-web-FIN.pdf
Yoshizawa, T., Singelée, D., Muehlberg, J.T., Delbruel, S., Taherkordi, A., Hughes, D., et al. (2023) A Survey of Security and Privacy Issues in V2X Communication Systems. ACM Computing Surveys , 55, 1-36. https://doi.org/10.1145/3558052
Benyahya, M., Kechagia, S., Collen, A. and Nijdam, N.A. (2022) The Interface of Privacy and Data Security in Automated City Shuttles: The GDPR Analysis. Applied Sciences , 12, Article 4413. https://doi.org/10.3390/app12094413
Garrod, D. (2024) Final Approval of Ground-Breaking EU AI Act. https://www.akingump.com/en/insights/alerts/final-approval-of-ground-breaking-eu-ai-act
Gaitanidou, E., Bekiaris, E. and Loukea, M. (2022) Automation User Acceptance Creation Path Roadmap. https://www.drive2thefuture.eu/wp-content/uploads/2023/01/D8.6-Automation-User-Acceptance-creation-path-roadmap.pdf
Huttner, B. and Kalsi, M. (2022) Countdown to Y2Q: Working Group, Quantum-Safe Security. Cloud Security Alliance. https://cloudsecurityalliance.org/research/working-groups/quantum-safe-security/
Maheshwari, A., et al. (2023) Is Quantum Computing a Cybersecurity Threat? In: Rawat, R., et al ., Eds., Quantum Computing in Cybersecurity , Wiley, 353-368. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781394167401.ch21
Majot, A. and Yampolskiy, R. (2015) Global Catastrophic Risk and Security Implications of Quantum Computers. Futures , 72, 17-26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.futures.2015.02.006
Kim, J., Min, D., Cho, J., Jeong, H., Byun, I., Choi, J., et al. (2024). A Fault-Tolerant Million Qubit-Scale Distributed Quantum Computer. Proceedings of the 29 th ACM International Conference on Architectural Support for Programming Languages and Operating Systems , Volume 2, La Jolla, 27 April-1 May 2024, 1-19. https://doi.org/10.1145/3620665.3640388
Scott III, F. (2021) A Buyer’s Guide to Quantum as a Service: Qubits for Hire. https://www.zdnet.com/article/a-buyers-guide-to-quantum-as-a-service-qubits-for-hire/
Xu, D., Yu, K., Liu, L., Chen, G., Kumar, N., Guizani, M., et al. (2024) Post-quantum Authentication against Cyber-Physical Attacks in V2X-Based Autonomous Vehicle Platoon. IEEE Transactions on Intelligent Transportation Systems , 25, 5034-5044. https://doi.org/10.1109/tits.2023.3339787
Wippelhauser, A., Edelmayer, A. and Bokor, L. (2023) A Declarative Application Framework for Evaluating Advanced V2x-Based ADAS Solutions. Applied Sciences , 13, Article 1392. https://doi.org/10.3390/app13031392
Bubeck, S., et al. (2023) Sparks of Artificial General Intelligence: Early Experiments with GPT-4. arXiv: 2303.12712.
Blake, A. (2023) GPT-5 Could Change the World in One Incredible Way. Digital Trends. https://www.digitaltrends.com/computing/gpt-5-artificial-general-intelligence/
Clarke, L. (2023) Call for AI Pause Highlights Potential Dangers. Science , 380, 120-121. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.adi2240
Sala, M. (2023) Conjecture Internal Survey: AGI Timelines and Probability of Hu-man Extinction from Advanced AI. LESSWRONG. https://www.lesswrong.com/posts/kygEPBDrGGoM8rz9a/conjecture-internal-survey-agi-timelines-and-probability-of
Liu, G., Huang, Y., Li, N., Dong, J., Jin, J., Wang, Q., et al. (2020) Vision, Requirements and Network Architecture of 6G Mobile Network Beyond 2030. China Communications , 17, 92-104. https://doi.org/10.23919/jcc.2020.09.008
Ylianttila, M., Kantola, R., Gurtov, A., Mucchi, L., Oppermann, I., Yan, Z., Röning, J., et al. (2020). 6G White Paper: Research Challenges for Trust, Security and Privacy. arXiv: 2004.11665.
Growiec, J. (2024) Existential Risk from Transformative AI: An Economic Perspective. Technological and Economic Development of Economy , 1-27. https://doi.org/10.3846/tede.2024.21525
Raheman, F. (2024) Formulating and Supporting a Hypothesis to Address a Catch-22 Situation in 6G Communication Networks. Journal of Information Security , 15, 340-354. https://doi.org/10.4236/jis.2024.153020
Bellan, R. (2022) Local Motors, the Startup behind the Olli Autonomous Shuttle, Has Shut Down. TechCrunch. https://techcrunch.com/2022/01/13/local-motors-the-startup-that-created-the-olli-autonomous-shuttle-has-shutdown/
Azevado, M.A. (2020) Self-Driving Truck Startup Starsky Robotics Shuts Down after Series B Falls through. Crunchbase. https://news.crunchbase.com/venture/self-driving-truck-startup-starsky-robotics-shuts-down-after-series-b-falls-through/
Korosec, K. (2019) Apple Acquires Self-Driving Startup Drive AI on the Brink of Closure. TechCrunch. https://techcrunch.com/2019/06/25/self-driving-startup-drive-ai-is-closing-down/
McCarty Carino, M. (2021) Lyft, Uber Back away from Autonomous Cars. https://www.marketplace.org/2021/05/04/lyft-uber-back-away-from-autonomous-cars/
European Commission (2020) Framework for Coordination Automated Mobility in Europe. https://cordis.europa.eu/project/id/101069898
European Commission (2017) Road Infrastructure Ready for Mixed vehicle flows. https://cordis.europa.eu/project/id/723016
SAE (2018) Taxonomy and Definitions for Terms Related to Driving Automation Systems for On-Road Motor Vehicles. https://www.sae.org/standards/content/j3016_201806/
Malik, S. and Sun, W. (2020). Analysis and Simulation of Cyber Attacks against Connected and Autonomous Vehicles. 2020 International Conference on Connected and Autonomous Driving ( MetroCAD ), Detroit, 27-28 February 2020, 62-70. https://doi.org/10.1109/metrocad48866.2020.00018
USGA Office (2016) Vehicle Cybersecurity: DOT and Industry Have Ef-forts under Way, but DOT Needs to Define Its Role in Responding to a Real-World Attack. GAO-16-350. https://www.gao.gov/products/GAO-16-350
Litman, T. (2020) Autonomous Vehicle Implementation Prediction: Implications for Transport Planning. Victoria Transport Planning Institute. https://nationalcenterformobilitymanagement.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/avip.pdf
Wise, D. (016) Vehicle Cybersecurity: DOT and Industry Have Efforts under Way but DOT Needs to Define Its Role in Responding to a Real-World Attack. https://www.gao.gov/products/GAO-16-350
Raheman, F. (2024) Harvesting, Tokenizing, and Sharing the Influence of Planetary Abundance to Mitigate the Global Debt Catastrophe. Theoretical Economics Letters , 14, 125-163. https://doi.org/10.4236/tel.2024.141008
Weber, S., Kaufman, D., Thomas, D. and Cohn, A. (2019) Cybersecurity Futures 2025 Insights and Findings. Center for Long-Term Cybersecurity, University of Berkley.
Fleck, A. (2022) Cybercrime Expected to Skyrocket in Coming Years. Statista. https://www.statista.com/chart/28878/expected-cost-of-cybercrime-until-2027/
Grimes, R.A. (2019) Cryptography Apocalypsee: Preparing for the Day When Quantum Computing Breaks Today’s Crypto. Wiley. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119618232
Dede, G., Hamon, R., Junklewitz, H., Naydenov, R., Malatras, A., and Sanchez, I. (2021) Cybersecurity Challenges in the Uptake of Artificial Intelligence in Autonomous Driving, EUR 30568 EN. Publications Office of the European Union, Luxem-bourg.
Smoljić, M. (2024) European Union Directives, National Regulations, and Zero Trust Network Architecture. 2024 47 th MIPRO ICT and Electronics Convention ( MIPRO ), Opatija, 20-24 May 2024, 1496-1501. https://doi.org/10.1109/mipro60963.2024.10569809
Rose, S., Borchert, O., Mitchell, S. and Connelly, S. (2020) Zero Trust Architecture. National Institute of Standards and Technology. https://doi.org/10.6028/NIST.SP.800-207 https://tsapps.nist.gov/publication/get_pdf.cfm?pub_id=930420
Michael, J.B., Dinolt, G.C., Cohen, F.B. and Wijesekera, D. (2022) Can You Trust Zero Trust? Computer , 55, 103-105. https://doi.org/10.1109/mc.2022.3178813
Horne, D. and Nair, S. (2021) Introducing Zero Trust by Design: Principles and Practice Beyond the Zero Trust Hype. In: Daimi, K., Arabnia, H.R., Deligiannidis, L., Hwang, M.S. and Tinetti, F.G., Eds., Advances in Security , Networks , and Internet of Things , Springer, 512-525.
Raheman, F. (2024) From Standard Policy-Based Zero Trust to Absolute Zero Trust (AZT): A Quantum Leap to Q-Day Security. Journal of Computer and Communications , 12, 252-282. https://doi.org/10.4236/jcc.2024.123016
Fernandez-Carames, T.M. and Fraga-Lamas, P. (2020) Towards Post-Quantum Blockchain: A Review on Blockchain Cryptography Resistant to Quantum Computing Attacks. IEEE Access , 8, 21091-21116. https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2020.2968985
Ford, P. (2023) The Quantum Cybersecurity Threat May Arrive Sooner than You Think. Computer , 56, 134-136. https://doi.org/10.1109/mc.2022.3227657
Křelina, M. (2022) Quantum Technology in Future Warfare: What Is on the Horzon? Future Warfare and Technology: Issues and Strategies. Global Policy Journal , 1, Article 107.
Raheman, F. (2022) The Future of Cybersecurity in the Age of Quantum Computers. Future Internet , 14, Article 335. https://doi.org/10.3390/fi14110335
Sharma, S. and Harjani, M. (2022) Rethinking the ‘Quantum Apocalypse’. RSIS Commentaries.
Schiffer, B.F. (2022) Quantum Computers as an Amplifier for Existential Risk. arXiv: 2205.02761
Szymanski, T.H. (2022) The “Cyber Security via Determinism” Paradigm for a Quantum Safe Zero Trust Deterministic Internet of Things (IOT). IEEE Access , 10, 45893-45930. https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2022.3169137
Chen, Lily, et al. (2016). Report on Post-Quantum Cryptography. Vol. 12. US Department of Commerce, National Institute of Standards and Technology. https://nvlpubs.nist.gov/nistpubs/ir/2016/nist.ir.8105.pdf
Nyári, N. (2021) The Impact of Quantum Computing on IT Security. B iztonsá g tudományi Szemle , 3, 25-37.
Ribezzo, D., Zahidy, M., Vagniluca, I., Biagi, N., Francesconi, S., Occhipinti, T., et al. (2022) Deploying an Inter‐european Quantum Network. Advanced Quantum Technologies , 6, Article ID: 2200061. https://doi.org/10.1002/qute.202200061
Lin, H. (2023) The Mother of All Data Breaches: Quantum Computing Holds New Promises and Dangers. Such Devices Could Overturn Our Whole Cybersecurity Re-gime, Revealing Not Just Mountains of Data but Secrets from Years Past. Hoover Di-gest , 1, 79-83.
Sanzeri, S. (2023) What the Quantum Computing Cybersecurity Preparedness Act Means for National Security. Forbes. https://www.forbes.com/sites/forbestechcouncil/2023/01/25/what-the-quantum-computing-cybersecurity-preparedness-act-means-for-national-security/
Olufon, T. (2023) Zero Trust Comes into the Mainstream in Europe. Forrester. https://www.forrester.com/report/zero-trust-comes-into-the-mainstream-in-europe/RES178958
Columbus, L. (2023) How Post Quantum Cryptography Will Help Fulfil the Vision of Zero Trust. Venture Beat. https://venturebeat.com/security/how-post-quantum-cryptography-will-help-fulfill-the-vision-of-zero-trust/
Alagic, G., Alagic, G., Alperin-Sheriff, J., Apon, D., Cooper, D., Dang, Q. and Smith-Tone, D. (2019) Status Report on the First Round of the NIST Post-Quantum Cryptography Standardization Process. US Department of Commerce, National Institute of Standards and Technology. https://tsapps.nist.gov/publication/get_pdf.cfm?pub_id=927303
Bindel, N., Twardokus, G., McCarthy, S., & Rahbari, H. (2023) Drive (Quantum) Safe!—Towards PQ Authentication for V2V Communications. https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/579859961.pdf
Cantero Gamito, M. and Marsden, C.T. (2024) Artificial Intelligence Co-Regulation? the Role of Standards in the EU AI Act. International Journal of Law and Information Technology , 32, eaae011. https://doi.org/10.1093/ijlit/eaae011
Peters, M.A., Jackson, L., Papastephanou, M., Jandrić, P., Lazaroiu, G., Evers, C.W., et al. (2023) AI and the Future of Humanity: ChatGPT-4, Philosophy and Education—Critical Responses. Educational Philosophy and Theory , 56, 828-862. https://doi.org/10.1080/00131857.2023.2213437
Kline, K., Salvo, M. and Johnson, D. (2019) How Artificial Intelligence and Quantum Computing Are Evolving Cyber Warfare. Cyber Intelligence Initiative, The Institute of World Politics.
Kuusi, O. and Heinonen, S. (2022) Scenarios from Artificial Narrow Intelligence to Artificial General Intelligence—Reviewing the Results of the International Work/Technology 2050 Study. World Futures Review , 14, 65-79. https://doi.org/10.1177/19467567221101637
Aslam, A.M., Chaudhary, R., Bhardwaj, A., Budhiraja, I., Kumar, N. and Zeadally, S. (2023) Metaverse for 6G and Beyond: The Next Revolution and Deployment Challenges. IEEE Internet of Things Magazine , 6, 32-39. https://doi.org/10.1109/iotm.001.2200248
Tariq, F., Khandaker, M.R.A., Wong, K., Imran, M.A., Bennis, M. and Debbah, M. (2020) A Speculative Study on 6g. IEEE Wireless Communications , 27, 118-125. https://doi.org/10.1109/mwc.001.1900488
McGowran, L. (2022) Quantum Apocalypse: Experts Warn of ‘Harvest Now, Decrypt Later’ Hacks. Silicon Republic. https://www.siliconrepublic.com/enterprise/quantum-apocalypse-store-now-decrypt-later-encryption
Benson, T., Duarte, F. and Ratti, C. (2022) From Amsterdam to New Amsterdam to Amsterdam: How Urban Mobility Shapes Cities. In: Chokhachian, A., Hensel, M.U. and Perini, K., Eds., Informed Urban Environments , Springer, 109-124. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-03803-7_7
Pazos-Otón, M. (2024) The End of the Car City in Spain. In: Lois-González, R.C. and Rio Fernandes, J.A., Eds., Urban Change in the Iberian Peninsula , Springer, 275-290. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-59679-7_18
Dries, M., Russ, M., Pilli-Sihvola, E. and Joaquin-Acosta, A. (2023) Preparing Infrastructure for Automated Vehicles. https://www.itf-oecd.org/sites/default/files/docs/preparing-infrastructure-automated-vehicles.pdf
Latour, B. (1987) Science in Action: How to Follow Scientists and Engineers through Society. Harvard University Press.
Stayton, E. and Stilgoe, J. (2020) It’s Time to Rethink Levels of Automation for Self-Driving Vehicles [Opinion]. IEEE Technology and Society Magazine , 39, 13-19. https://doi.org/10.1109/mts.2020.3012315
Hopkins, D. and Schwanen, T. (2021) Talking about Automated Vehicles: What Do Levels of Automation Do? Technology in Society , 64, Article ID: 101488. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techsoc.2020.101488
Steckhan, L., Spiessl, W., Quetschlich, N. and Bengler, K. (2022) Beyond SAE J3016: New Design Spaces for Human-Centered Driving Automation. In: Krömker, H., Eds., HCI in Mobility , Transport , and Automotive Systems , Springer, 416-434. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-04987-3_28
Chen, S., Zong, S., Chen, T., Huang, Z., Chen, Y. and Labi, S. (2023) A Taxonomy for Autonomous Vehicles Considering Ambient Road Infrastructure. Sustainability , 15, Article 11258. https://doi.org/10.3390/su151411258
Inagaki, T. and Sheridan, T.B. (2018) A Critique of the SAE Conditional Driving Automation Definition, and Analyses of Options for Improvement. Cognition , Technology & Work , 21, 569-578. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10111-018-0471-5
Inframix (2022) Infrastructure Categorization—Inframix EU Project. https://www.inframix.eu/infrastructure-categorization/
Khastgir, S., Vreeswijk, J., Shladover, S., Kulmala, R., Alkim, T., Wijbenga, A., et al. (2023) Distributed ODD Awareness for Connected and Automated Driving. Transportation Research Procedia , 72, 3118-3125. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trpro.2023.11.874
Raheman, F., Bhagat, T., Vermeulen, B. and Van Daele, P. (2022) Will Zero Vulnerability Computing (ZVC) Ever Be Possible? Testing the Hypothesis. Future Internet , 14, Article 238. https://doi.org/10.3390/fi14080238
Raheman, F. (2024) Defining Quantum Advantage for Building a Sustainable MVP to Deliver Quantum Computing Services. Open Journal of Applied Sciences , 14, 1530-1549. https://doi.org/10.4236/ojapps.2024.146102
European Commission, Horizon Europe (2023) Zero Vulnerability Computing (ZVC): A New Paradigm. Seal of Excellence. https://zvchub.com/#seal
Campbell, M. (2020) Beyond Zero Trust: Trust Is a Vulnerability. Computer , 53, 110-113. https://doi.org/10.1109/mc.2020.3011081
Georgsen, R.E. and Køien, G.M. (2022) Serious Games with SysML: Gamifying Threat Modelling in a Small Business Setting. INCOSE International Symposium , 32, 119-132. https://doi.org/10.1002/iis2.12902
Whitmore, T. (2022) The Elusive Promise of (and Maddening Obstacles to Implementing) a Cloud Zero Trust Architecture. Frost & Sullivan. https://www.frost.com/frost-perspectives/elusive-promise-and-obstacles-to-cloud-zero-trust-architecture/
Raheman, F. (2024) Futureproofing Blockchain & Cryptocurrencies against Growing Vulnerabilities & Q-Day Threat with Quantum-Safe Ledger Technology (QLT). Journal of Computer and Communications , 12, 59-77. https://doi.org/10.4236/jcc.2024.127005
Raheman, F. (2024) Tackling the Existential Threats from Quantum Computers and AI. Intelligent Information Management , 16, 121-146. https://doi.org/10.4236/iim.2024.163008
Strachey, C. (1965) An Impossible Program. The Computer Journal , 7, 313-313. https://doi.org/10.1093/comjnl/7.4.313
Alfonseca, M., Cebrian, M., Fernandez Anta, A., Coviello, L., Abeliuk, A. and Rahwan, I. (2021) Superintelligence Cannot Be Contained: Lessons from Computability Theory. Journal of Artificial Intelligence Research , 70, 65-76. https://doi.org/10.1613/jair.1.12202
Jansen, M., Hdhili, F., Gouiaa, R. and Qasem, Z. (2019) Do Smart Contract Languages Need to Be Turing Complete? In: Prieto, J., Das, A., Ferretti, S., Pinto, A. and Corchado, J., Eds., Blockchain and Applications , Springer, 19-26. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-23813-1_3
Hu, B., Zhang, Z., Liu, J., Liu, Y., Yin, J., Lu, R., et al. (2021) A Comprehensive Survey on Smart Contract Construction and Execution: Paradigms, Tools, and Systems. Patterns , 2, Article ID: 100179. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.patter.2020.100179
Aziz, D., Bohm, C. and Hurley, F. (2021) Enabling 5G and DSRC V2X in Autonomous Driving Vehicles. Analog Devices Inc. https://resource.itbusinesstoday.com/whitepapers/18937-Analog-Devices-4.pdf
Tim Fisher (2024) 6G: What It Is? & When to Expect It? https://www.lifewire.com/6g-wireless-4685524
Bertin, E., Crespi, N. and Magedanz, T. (2021) Shaping Future 6G Networks: Needs, Impacts, and Technologies. John Wiley & Sons.
Zhang, S., Xiang, C. and Xu, S. (2020) 6G: Connecting Everything by 1000 Times Price Reduction. IEEE Open Journal of Vehicular Technology , 1, 107-115. https://doi.org/10.1109/ojvt.2020.2980003
Ulitzsch, V.Q., Park, S., Marzougui, S. and Seifert, J. (2022). A Post-Quantum Secure Subscription Concealed Identifier for 6g. Proceedings of the 15 th ACM Conference on Security and Privacy in Wireless and Mobile Networks , San Antonio, 16-19 May 2022, 157-168. https://doi.org/10.1145/3507657.3528540
Sarewitz, D. and Pielke, R. (1999) Prediction in Science and Policy. Technology in Society , 21, 121-133. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0160-791x(99)00002-0
Agrawal, S., Schuster, A.M., Britt, N., Mack, E.A., Tidwell, M.L. and Cotten, S.R. (2023) Building on the Past to Help Prepare the Workforce for the Future with Automated Vehicles: A Systematic Review of Automated Passenger Vehicle Deployment Timelines. Technology in Society , 72, Article ID: 102186. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techsoc.2022.102186