Spatial Variation of Nutrient Concentrations (NH<sup>+</sup><sub style="margin-left:-5px;">4</sub> and Cl<sup>-</sup>) in the Dudhkoshi River Basin, Sagarmatha National Park, Nepal — Oak Academic Publishing
Research ArticleOpen AccessGoogle Scholar indexed
Spatial Variation of Nutrient Concentrations (NH<sup>+</sup><sub style="margin-left:-5px;">4</sub> and Cl<sup>-</sup>) in the Dudhkoshi River Basin, Sagarmatha National Park, Nepal
Environment, Geology and Natural Resources, Ball State University, Muncie, USA
,
Environment, Geology and Natural Resources, Ball State University, Muncie, USA
,
Environment, Geology and Natural Resources, Ball State University, Muncie, USA
,
Department of Earth Sciences, Indiana University-Purdue University, Indianapolis, USA
,
Environment, Geology and Natural Resources, Ball State University, Muncie, USA
The Sagarmatha National Park (SNP) in Nepal is home to unique natural beauty and cultural significance. While the SNP has a relatively small local population, it has drawn thousands of visitors since Edmund Hillary and Tenzing Norgay reached the peak of Mt Everest in 1953. Importantly, the tourists and their concurrently generated refuse have caused massive anthropogenic pressure with serious environmental consequences for the unique SNP and SNP Buffer Zone ecosystems. This study aimed to understand the spatial variation of nutrient concentrations in stream water and drinking water (primarily shallow springs) using analyses of nitrogen as NH + 4 and chlorine (Cl - ) concentrations. Sampling occurred in April 2017 during the pre-monsoon dry season in the upper Dudhkoshi River Basin, SNP. Dissolved inorganic nitrogen (NH + 4 ) concentrations in both drinking water and stream water were low with average concentrations in drinking water of 0.016 mg/L (±0.010) and 0.033 mg/L (±0.031) in stream water. Similarly, Cl - concentrations were also low with average concentrations of 0.185 mg/L (±0.045) and 0.124 mg/L (±0.051) in stream and drinking water, respectively. Importantly, nitrogen in stream waters exhibits a decreasing trend with altitude whereas Cl - values decrease with altitude in both drinking water and streams. The observed spatial variations of nitrogen and chlorine concentrations are attributed primarily to the significant variations in land use/land cover from the highest portions of the drainage basin to the lowest elevations, which are outside of the SNP boundary and therefore allow more agricultural development. Our results demonstrated that although the quality of stream water in the upper reach of Dudhkoshi River Basin meets WHO standards for drinking water, there is significant surface water contamination in the form of agricultural run-off. These results will provide base-line data for further studies and will help to improve understanding of the relationship between land use/land cover and water quality in the region.
Peterson, B.J., Wollheim, W.M., Mulholland, P.J., Webster, J.R., Meyer, J.L., Tank, J.L., Martí, E., Bowden, W.B., Valett, H.M. and Hershey, A.E. (2001) Control of Nitrogen Export from Watersheds by Headwater Streams. Science, 292, 86-90. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1056874
Houser, J.N., Mulholland, P.J. and Maloney, K.O. (2006) Upland Disturbance Affects Headwater Stream Nutrients and Suspended Sediments during Baseflow and Stormflow. Journal of Environmental Quality, 35, 352-365. https://doi.org/10.2134/jeq2005.0102
Pringle, C.M. (1990) Nutrient Spatial Heterogeneity: Effects on Community Structure, Physiognomy, and Diversity of Stream Algae. Ecology, 71, 905-920. https://doi.org/10.2307/1937362
Hood, E. and Scott, D. (2008) Riverine Organic Matter and Nutrients in Southeast Alaska Affected by Glacial Coverage. Nature Geoscience, 1, 583-587. https://doi.org/10.1038/ngeo280
Mouri, G., Takizawa, S. and Oki, T. (2011) Spatial and Temporal Variation in Nutrient Parameters in Stream Water in a Rural-Urban Catchment, Shikoku, Japan: Effects of Land Cover and Human Impact. Journal of Environmental Management, 92, 1837-1848. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2011.03.005
Howarth, R.W. and Marino, R. (2006) Nitrogen as the Limiting Nutrient for Eutrophication in Coastal Marine Ecosystems: Evolving Views over Three Decades. Limnology and Oceanography, 51, 364-376. https://doi.org/10.4319/lo.2006.51.1_part_2.0364
Rabalais, N.N., Turner, R.E., Díaz, R.J. and Justic, D. (2009) Global Change and Eutrophication of Coastal Waters. ICES Journal of Marine Science, 66, 1528-1537. https://doi.org/10.1093/icesjms/fsp047
Lambin, E.F. and Meyfroidt, P. (2010) Land Use Transitions: Socio-Ecological Feedback versus Socio-Economic Change. Land Use Policy, 27, 108-118. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2009.09.003
Salerno, F., Viviano, G., Manfredi, E.C., Caroli, P., Thankuri, S. and Tartari, G. (2013) Multiple Carrying Capacities from a Management-Oriented Perspective to Operationalize Sustainable Tourism in Protected Areas. Journal of Environmental Management, 128, 116-125. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2013.04.043
Byers, A. (2005) Contemporary Human Impacts on Alpine Ecosystems in the Sagarmatha (Mt. Everest) National Park, Nepal. Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 95, 112-140. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8306.2005.00452.x
Ghimire, N.P., Jha, P.K. and Caravello, G. (2013) Physico-Chemical Parameters of High-Altitude Rivers in the Sagarmatha (Everest) National Park, Nepal. Journal of Water Resource and Protection, 5, 761-767. https://doi.org/10.4236/jwarp.2013.58077
Nicholson, K., Hayes, E., Neumann, K., Dowling, C. and Sharma, S. (2016) Drinking Water Quality in the Sagarmatha National Park, Nepal. Journal of Geoscience and Environment Protection, 4, 43-53. https://doi.org/10.4236/gep.2016.44007
Panzeri, D., Caroli, P. and Haack, B. (2013) Sagarmatha Park (Mt Everest) Porter Survey and Analysis. Tourism Management, 36, 26-34. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2012.11.003
UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) (2009) Case Studies on Climate Change and World Heritage.
Xiang, Y., Yao, T.D., Gao, Y., Zhang, G.Q., Wang, W.C. and Tian, L. (2018) Retreat Rates of Debris-Covered and Debris-Free glaciers in the Koshi River Basin, central Himalayas, from 1975 to 2010. Environmental Earth Sciences, 77, Article No. 285. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-018-7457-8
Barry, R.G. and Chorley, R.J. (1982) Atmosphere, Weather and Climate. 4th Edition, Methuen & Co. Ltd., Methuen.
Mani, A. (1981) The Climate of the Himalaya. In: Lall, R. and Moddie, A.D., Eds., the Himalaya: The Aspects of Change, Oxford University Press, New Delhi, 3-15.
Salerno, F., Buraschi, E., Bruccoleri, G., Tartari, G. and Smiraglia, C. (2008) Glacier Surface-Area Changes in Sagarmatha National Park, Nepal, in the Second Half of the 20th Century, by Comparison of Historical Maps. Journal of Glaciology, 54, 738-752.
Muller, F. (1980) Present and Late Pleistocene Equilibrium Line Altitudes in the Mt. Everest Region-An Application of the Glacier Inventory. Proceedings of the Riederalp Workshop, No. 126, 75-94.
Salerno, F., Guyennon, N., Thakuri, S., Viviano, G., Romano, E., Vuillermoz, E., Cristofanelli, P., Stocchi, P., Agrillo, G., Ma, Y. and Tartari, G. (2015) Weak Precipitation, Warm Winters and Springs Impact Glaciers of South Slopes of Mt. Everest (central Himalaya) in the Last 2 Decades (1994-2013). Cryosphere, 9, 1229-1247. https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-9-1229-2015
Balestrini, R., Polesello, S. and Sacchi, E. (2014) Chemistry and Isotopic Composition of Precipitation and Surface Waters in Khumbu Valley (Nepal Himalaya): N Dynamics of High Elevation Basins. Science of the Total Environment, 485-486, 681-692. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2014.03.096
Gehrig, R. (2013) Lodge Development in Khumbu, Nepal. MSc. Thesis, Center for Development and Environment, University of Bern, Switzerland.
Bajracharya, B., Uddin, K., Chettri, N., Shrestha, B. and Siddiqui, A.S. (2010) Understanding Land Cover Change Using a Harmonized Classification System in the Himalayas: A Case Study from Sagarmatha National Park, Nepal. Mountain Research and Development, 30, 143-156. https://doi.org/10.1659/MRD-JOURNAL-D-09-00044.1
Humagain, K. (2012) Examining Land Use/Land Cover Change and Potential Causal Factors in the Context of Climate Change in Sagarmatha National Park, Nepal. Ph.D. Thesis, Western Kentucky University, Bowling Green, Kentucky.
Stevens, S.F. (2013) National Parks and ICCAs in the High Himalayan Region of Nepal: Challenges and Opportunities. Conservation and Society, 11, 29-45. https://doi.org/10.4103/0972-4923.110946
Thakuri, S., Salerno, F., Guyennon, N., Viviano, G., Smiraglia, C., D’Agata, C. and Tartari, G. (2013) Glacier Response to Climate Trend and Climate Variability in Mt. Everest Region (Nepal). American Geophysical Meeting Abstracts with Programs.
Garrard, R., Kohler, T., Price, M.F., Byers, A.C., Sherpa, A.R. and Maharjan, G.R. (2016) Land Use and Land Cover Change in Sagarmatha National Park, a World Heritage Site in the Himalayas of Eastern Nepal. Mountain Research and Development, 36, 299-310. https://doi.org/10.1659/MRD-JOURNAL-D-15-00005.1
Nicholson, K.N., Neumann, K. and Sharma, S. (2019) The Impact of Precipitation on Drinking Water Resources in the Sagarmatha National Park (Mt. Everest Region), Nepal. Journal of Water Resources and Protection, 11, 1351-1368. https://doi.org/10.4236/jwarp.2019.1111078
Nicholson, K.N., Neumann, K., Dowling, C., Gruver, J., Sherman, H. and Sharma, S. (2018) An Assessment of Drinking Water Sources in Sagarmatha National Park (Mt Everest Region), Nepal. Mountain Research and Development, 38, 353-364. https://doi.org/10.1659/MRD-JOURNAL-D-17-00024.1
Wood, L., Neumann, K., Nicholson, K., Dowling, C. and Bird, B. (2018) High-Altitude Communities in a Warming World: A Geochemical Analysis of Domestic Water Resources in the Khumbu Valley, Nepal. GSA Annual Meeting in Indianapolis, 7 November 2018, Indiana, 271-274. https://doi.org/10.1130/abs/2018AM-319331
Korner, C. and Ohsawa, M. (2005) Mountain Systems. Island Press, Washington DC, USA.
Garrard, R., Kohler, T., Wiesmann, U., Price, F.M., Byers, A.C. and Sherpa, A.R. (2012) Depicting Community Perspectives: Repeat Photography and Participatory Research as Tools for Assessing Environmental Services in Sagarmatha National Park, Nepal. eco. mont, 4, 21-31. https://doi.org/10.1553/eco.mont-4-2s21
Liu, B., Kang, S.C., Sun, J.M., Zhang, Y.L., Xu, R.,Wang, Y.J., Liu, Y.W. and Cong, Z.Y. (2013) Wet Precipitation Chemistry at a High-Altitude Site (3,326 m a.s.l.) in the Southeastern Tibetan Plateau. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 20, 5013-5027. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-012-1379-x
Zhang, Y.L., Kang, S.C., Li, C.L., Cong, Z.Y. and Zhang, Q.G. (2012) Wet Deposition of Precipitation Chemistry during 2005-2009 at a Remote Site (Nam Co Station) in Central Tibetan Plateau. Journal of Atmospheric Chemistry, 69, 187-200. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10874-012-9236-3