A three-phase pesticide transport model is used to verify by numerical simulation, the influence of different parameters on infiltration through soil and/or surface runoff processes. Simulations are performed for a typical sandy loam potato field of Italy’s Fucino Plain, to explain the occurrence of measured concentrations of pesticides (mainly Linuron) in both surface waters and groundwater. Simulations take into account agricultural practices, climatic conditions, and soil characteristics. Results focus on the role of rainfall events and irrigation, of related infiltration amount and distribution, and of root zone thickness in influencing pesticide fate and its possible concentration increase through the years. Modeling results positively fit with the background knowledge of the Plain hydrology, showing the prevalence of surface transport and a scarce possibility for pesticides to reach groundwater in an average rainfall/irrigation scenario. Meanwhile, specific water management strategies are suggested to limit the occurrence of local groundwater pollution, related to high aquifer vulnerability zones, controlling inappropriate irrigation and pesticide application.
R. D. Rowden, H. Liu, and R. D. Libra, “Results from the Big Spring basin water quality monitoring and demonstration projects, Iowa, USA,” Hydrogeology Journal, Vol. 9, pp. 487–497, 2001.
N. P. De Guzman, P. Hendley, D. I. Gustafson, I. van Wesenbeeck, A. J. Klein, J. D. Fuhrman, K. Travis, N. D. Simmons, W. E. Teskey, and R.B. Durham, “The acetochlor registration partnership state ground water monitoring program,” Journal of Environmental Quality, Vol. 34, pp. 793–803, 2005.
D. J. Lapworth, D. C. Gooddy, M. E. Stuart, P. J. Chilton, G. Cachandt, M. Knapp, and S. Bishop, “Pesticides in groundwater: Some observations on temporal and spatial trends,” Water and Environment Journal, Vol. 20, pp. 55–64, 2003.
X. Morvan, C. Mouvet, N. Baran, and A. Gutierrez, “Pesticides in the groundwater of a spring draining a sandy aquifer: Temporal variability of concentrations and fluxes,” Journal of Contaminant Hydrology, Vol. 87, pp. 176–190, 2006.
D. J. Lapworth and D. C. Gooddy, “Source and persistence of pesticides in a semi-confined chalk aquifer of southeast England,” Environmental Pollution, Vol. 144, pp. 1031–1044, 2006.
N. Baran, C. Mouvet, and P. Négrel, “Hydrodynamic and geochemical constraints on pesticide concentrations in the groundwater of an agricultural catchment (Brévilles, France),” Environmental Pollution, Vol. 148, pp. 729– 738, 2007.
N. Baran, M. Lepiller, and C. Mouvet, “Agricultural diffuse pollution in a chalk aquifer (Trois Fontaines, France): Influence of pesticide properties and hydrodynamic constraints,” Journal of Hydrology, Vol. 358, pp. 56–69, 2008.
I. S. Fomsgaard, G. Felding, and P. Schj?nning, “Sampling and substrate application methods for pesticide mineralization experiments in undisturbed soil samples,” International Journal of Environmental Analytical Chemistry, Vol. 70, pp. 121–132, 1997.
P. R. J?rgensen, L. D. McKay, and N. H. Spliid, “Evaluation of chloride and pesticide transport in a fractured clayey till using large undisturbed columns and numerical modelling,” Water Resources Research, Vol. 34, pp. 539– 554, 1998.
W. Mersie, C. Seybold, D. Tierney, and C. McNamee, “Effect of temperature, disturbance and incubation time on release and degradation of atrazine in water columns over two types of sediments,” Chemosphere, Vol. 36, pp. 1867–1881, 1998.
B. L. Hoyle and E. L. Arthur, “Biotransformation of pesticides in saturated-zone materials,” Hydrogeology Journal, Vol. 8, pp. 89–103, 2000.
N. Tuxen, P. L. Tüchsen, K. Rügge, H. J. Albrechtsen, and P. L. Bjerg, ”The fate of seven pesticides in an aerobic aquifer studied in column experiments,” Chemosphere, Vol. 41, pp. 1485–1494, 2000.
W. G. Knisel, “CREAMS: A field-scale model for chemicals, runoff, and erosion from agricultural management systems,” US Department of Agriculture, Science and Education Administration, Conservation Research Report, USDA, Washington, Vol. 26, 1980.
W. A. Jury, W. F. Spencer, and W. J. Farmer, “Behavior assessment model for trace organics in soil. I. model description,” Journal of Environmental Quality, Vol. 12., pp. 558–564, 1983.
J. D. Dean, P. S. Huyakorn, A. S. Donigian, K. A. Voss, R. W. Schanz, Y. T. Meeks, and R. F. Carsel, “Risk of unsaturated/saturated transport and transformation of chemical concentrations (RUSTIC), theory and code verification,” 1, EPA-600/3–89/048a, USEPA, Athens, GA, 1989.
R. J. Wagenet and J. L. Hutson, “LEACHM: Leaching estimation and chemistry model,” Continuum Water Resources Institute, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, Vol. 2. Version 2, 1989.
W. H. J. Beltman, J. J. T. I. Boesten, and S. E. A. T. M. van der Zee, “Analytical modeling of pesticide transport from the soil surface to a drinking water well2,” Journal of Hydrology, Vol. 169, pp. 209–228, 1995.
M. Klein, “PELMO pesticide leaching model, version 2.01, user’s manual,” Fraunhofer-Institut fur Umweltchemie und Okotoxikolgie, D-57392 Schmallenberg (Germany), 1995.
L. R. Ahuja, K. W. Rojas, J. D. Hanson, M. J. Shaffer, and L. Ma, Eds., “The root zone water quality model,” Water Resources Publications LLC, Highland Ranch, CO, 2000.
W. G. Knisel and F. M. Davis, “GLEAMS: Groundwater loading effects of agricultural management systems, version 3.0,” USDA-ARS, Southeast Watershed Research Laboratory, Publication n SEWRL-WGK/FMD-0650199, revised 081500, Tifton, Georgia, 2000.
A. Tiktak, F. van den Berg, J. J. T. I. Boesten, M. Leistra, A. M. A. van der Linden, and D. van Kraalingen, “Pesticide emission assessment at regional and local scales: User manual of pearl version 1.1,” RIVM Report 711401008, Alterra Report 28, RIVM Bilthoven, 2000.
R. F. Carsel, J. C. Imhoff, P. R. Hummel, J. M. Cheplick, and A. S. Jr. Donigian, “PRZM-3, a model for predicting pesticide and nitrogen fate in the crop root and unsaturated soil zones: Users manual for release 3.12,” National Exposure Research Laboratory, USEPA, Athens, GA, 2003.
R. F. Carsel and R. S. Parrish, “Developing joint probability distributions of soil water retention characteristics,” Water Resources Research, Vol. 24, pp. 755–769, 1988.
M. Larsbo and N. Jarvis, “MACRO 5.0: A model of water flow and solute transport in macroporous soil,” Technical Description, Emergo 2003:6 Report, ISSN 1651-7210, ISBN 91-756-6592-3. Swedish University of Agricultural Science, 2003.
R. Denzer, C. Riparbelli, M. Villa, and R. Guttler, “GIMMI: Geographic information and mathematical models inter-operability,” Environmental Modelling & Software, Vol. 20, No. 12, pp. 1478–1485, 2005.
H. J. Henriksen, P. Rasmussen, G. Brandt, D. von Bulow, and F. V. Jensen, “Public partecipation modeling using Bayesian networks in management of groundwater contamination,” Environmental Modelling & Software, Vol. 22, pp. 1101–1113, 2007.
X. Chu and M. A. Mari?o, “Semidiscrete pesticide transport modeling and application,” Journal of Hydrology, Vol. 285, pp. 19–40, 2004.
X. Chu and M. A. Mari?o, “IPTM-CS: A windows-based integrated pesticide transport model for a canopy-soil system,” Environmental Modelling and Software, Vol. 22, pp. 1316–1327, 2007.
E. Burri and M. Petitta, “Groundwater lowering in karstic aquifers due to agricultural activity in the Fucino Plain (Abruzzi, central Italy),” Acta Carsologica, Vol. 27, No. 1–2, pp. 27–45, 1998.
E. Burri and M. Petitta, “Agricultural changes affecting water availability: From abundance to scarcity (Fucino Plain, central Italy),” Irrigation and Drainage, Vol. 53, pp. 287–299, 2004.
M. Petitta, E. Burri, A. Del Bon, and A. Marchetti, “Hydrogeological map of Fucino Basin, scale 1/50.000,” Atlante Tematico del Fucino, Selca, Italy, Vol. 1.
M. Petitta, E. Burri, A. Del Bon, and G. Pannunzio, “Water and agriculture management: Environmental problems in the Fucino Plain (Central Italy),” In: Nitrates in groundwater, IAH Selected Papers, Taylor & Francis, Vol. 5, pp. 269–277, 2005.
F. Ruggieri, M. Fanelli, D. Di Pasquale, E. Burri, and M. Petitta, “Evaluation by chemical parameters of the pollution state of the agricultural-industrial settlement of the Fucino Plain,” Annali di Chimica, Vol. 95, pp. 607–616, 2005.
European Union, Council Directive 91/414/EEC, “Plant protection products,” Bruxelles, 1991.
European Union, “Water framework directive,” Official Journal L 327, Bruxelles, 2000.
Gazzetta Ufficiale, “Decreto legislativo 152/99,” Repubblica Italiana, Rome, Italy, 1999.
X. Chu and M. A. Mari?o, “Improved compartmental modelling and application to three-phase contaminant transport in unsaturated porous media,” Journal of Environmental Engineering, Vol. 132, pp. 211–219, 2006.
M. M. Hantush and M. A. Mari?o, “An analytical model for the assessment for pesticide exposure levels in soils and groundwater,” Environmental Modeling & Assessment, Vol. 1, pp. 263–276, 1996.
L. Candela and M. A. Mari?o, “Simulation of 2,4-D herbicide transport through the unsaturated zone using an analytical model,” International Journal of Environmental Analytical Chemistry, Vol. 84, pp. 123–131, 2004.
Y. Mintz and G.K.Walker, “Global fields of soil moisture and land surface evapotranspiration derived from observed precipitation and surface air temperature,” Journal of Applied Meteorology, Vol. 32, pp. 1305–1334, 1993.
R. G. Allen, L. S. Pereira, D. Raes, and M. Smith, “Crop evapotranspiration: Guidelines for computing crop water requirements,” FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper, Vol. 56, 1998.
J. J. T. I. Boesten and A. M. A. van der Linden, “Modeling the influence of sorption and transformation on pesticide leaching and persistence,” Journal of Environmental Quality, Vol. 20, pp. 425–435, 1991.
J. A. Mullins, R. F. Carsel, J. E. Scarbrough, and A.M. Ivery, “PRZM-2: A model for predicting pesticide fate in the crop root and unsaturated soil zones: Users manual for release 2.0,” USEPA, Athens, PA, 1993.
V. P. Singh, “Elementary hydrology,” Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, 1992.
ASTM, “Standard test method for classification of soils for engineering purposes,” ASTM D 2487–85, ASTM, Philadelphia, PA, 1985.
W. J. Rawls, D. L. Brakensiek, and K. E. Saxton, “Estimation of soil water properties,” Transactions of the ASAE, Vol. 25, No. 5, pp. 1316–1320, 1982.
D. R. Maidment, “Handbook of hydrology,” Mc Graw Hill, 1993.
M. T. Van Genuchten, “A closed-form equation for predicting the hydraulic conductivity of unsaturated soils,” Soil Science Society of America Journal, Vol. 44, No. 5, pp. 892–898, 1980.
Extoxnet, “Pesticide information profiles (PIPs) database,” Oregon State University. http:// extoxnet.orst.edu/ pips/ghindex.html, 2006.
W. A. Jury, W. R. Gardner, and W. H. Gardner, “Soil physics,” Fifth Edition, Wiley & Sons, 1991.
A. G. Hornsby, R. D. Wauchope, and A. E. Herner, “Pesticide properties in the environment,” Springer, 1996.
E. Burri, E. Pacioni, and M. Petitta, “Nitrati e pesticidi nelle acque del bacino del Fucino in funzione della disponibilità della risorsa idrica e dell’attività agricola,” Atti dei Convegni Lincei, Vol. 198, pp. 97–111, 2006.
USDA, “Urban hydrology for small watersheds,” Technical Release 55 (TR-55), Natural Resources Conservation Services, USDA, Washington, 1986.
E. Pacioni, M. Petitta, and M. A. Mari?o, “Simulation by the IPTM-CS model of pesticides found in surface water and groundwater of the Fucino Plain, Italy,” in Proceedings Water Quality and Sediment Behaviour of the Future: Predictions for the 21st Century, IAHS Vol. 314, pp. 188–196, 2007.
E. Pacioni, “1D analysis of flow and transport of pesticides in unsaturated zone, for vulnerability evaluation of porous alluvial aquifer of Fucino Plain, Central Italy,” PhD dissertation, Earth Science Department, La Sapienza University of Rome, 2009.
E. Pacioni, M. Petitta, Guidotti M., “Fluidodynamic of pesticides in the unsaturated zone: A column experiment related to the case-study of the Fucino Plain, Central Italy,” Giornale di Geologia Applicata, in press, 2010.