This experiment examined the fluctuations in nitrogen gas supersaturation throughout the day in three karst springs (upper, side, and lower) at McNenny State Fish Hatchery, rural Spearfish, Lawrence County, South Dakota, USA. Total gas pressures, oxygen percent saturation, and nitrogen percent saturation were recorded six times/day on eight days over a 26-day period in each of the three springs. Total gas pressure did not vary significantly throughout the day in any of the springs. However, percent oxygen and nitrogen saturation were significantly different throughout the day in all three springs. The highest mean (SE) nitrogen supersaturation value of 118.5 (1.1)% was observed in the lower spring at 07:00. The lowest mean nitrogen supersaturation values were 114.5 (1.1)% at 13:00 in the upper spring, and 114.2 (0.2)% and 113.1 (0.7)% at 15:00 in the side and lower spring, respectively. At 118% nitrogen supersaturation, gas bubble disease is likely to occur in fish, resulting in potentially high levels of mortality if untreated spring water was used for fish production. The results of this study indicate the importance of recording nitrogen gas levels at sunrise or early in the morning, when nitrogen is highest and oxygen is lowest, to obtain accurate and reproducible data.
Williamson, J.E. and Carter, J.M. (2001) Water-Quality Characteristics in the Black Hills Area, South Dakota. U.S. Geological Survey, Water-Resources Investigations Report 01-4194. https://pubs.usgs.gov/wri/wri014194/pdf/wri014194.pdf
Stetler, L.D. and Davis, A.D. (2005) Gypsum and Carbonate Karst along the I-90 Development Corridor, Black Hills, South Dakota. U.S. Geological Survey Karst Interest Group Proceedings, Rapid City, 12-15 September 2005, U.S. Geological Survey, Scientific Investigations Report 2005-5160, 134. https://pubs.usgs.gov/sir/2005/5160/PDF/sir2005-5160part3C.pdf
Epstein, J.B. (2005) National Evaporite Karst-Some Western Examples. U.S. Geological Survey Karst Interest Group Proceedings, Rapid City, 12-15 September 2005, U.S. Geological Survey, Scientific Investigations Report 2005-5160, 122-133. https://pubs.usgs.gov/sir/2005/5160/PDF/sir2005-5160part3C.pdf
Naus, C.A., Driscoll, D.G. and Carter, J.M. (2001) Geochemistry of the Madison and Minnelusa Aquifers in the Black Hills Area, South Dakota. U.S. Geological Survey, Water-Resources Investigations Report 01-4129. https://pubs.usgs.gov/wri/wri014129/pdf/wri014129.pdf
Putnam, L.D. and Long, A.J. (2007) Characterization of Ground-Water Flow and Water Quality for the Madison and Minnelusa Aquifers in Northern Lawrence County, South Dakota. U.S. Geological Survey, Scientific Investigations Report 2007-5001. https://doi.org/10.3133/sir20075001
Marsh, M.C. (1910) Notes on the Dissolved Content of Water and Its Effect upon Fishes. Bulletin of the Bureau of Fisheries, 28, 891-906.
Marking, L.L. (1987) Gas Supersaturation in Fisheries: Causes, Concerns, and Cures. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Leaflet 9, Washington DC. https://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a322709.pdf
Nebeker, A.V., Andros, J.D., McCrady, J.K. and Stevens, D.G. (1978) Survival of Steelhead Trout (Salmo gairdneri) Eggs, Embryos, and Fry in Air-Supersaturated Water. Journal of the Fisheries Board of Canada, 35, 261-264. https://doi.org/10.1139/f78-043
Bouck, G.R. (1980) Etiology of Gas Bubble Disease. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society, 109, 703-707. https://doi.org/10.1577/1548-8659(1980)109 2.0.CO;2
Gunnarsli, K.S., Toften, H. and Mortensen, A. (2009) Effects of Nitrogen Gas Supersaturation on Growth and Survival in Larval Cod (Gadus morhua L.). Aquaculture, 288, 344-348. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2008.11.039
Liu, X., Li, K., Du, J., Li, J. and Li, R. (2011) Growth Rate, Catalase and Superoxide Dismutase Activities in Rock Carp (Procypris rabaudi Tchang) Exposed to Supersaturated Total Dissolved Gas. Journal of Zhejiang University SCIENCE B, 12, 909-914. https://doi.org/10.1631/jzus.B1100071
Wang, Y., Li, Y., An, R. and Li, K. (2018) Effects of Total Dissolved Gas Supersaturation on the Swimming Performance of Two Endemic Fish Species in the Upper Yangtze River. Scientific Reports, 8, Article No. 10063. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-28360-7
Krebs, E., Muggli, A.M., Barnes, J.M. and Barnes, M.E. (2018) A Novel Trout Pond Inlet Structure. Journal of Aquaculture Engineering and Fisheries Research, 4, 120-126.
Caasi, J.M.A., Krebs, E., Huysman, N., Voorhees, J.M. and Barnes, M.E. (2020) A Degassing Inlet Structure for Aquaculture Ponds. World Journal of Engineering and Technology, 8, 159-167. https://doi.org/10.4236/wjet.2020.82013
Driscoll, D.G., Carter, J.M., Williamson, J.E. and Putnam, L.D. (2002) Hydrology of the Black Hills Area, South Dakota. United States Department of Interior, United States Geological Survey, Water-Resources Investigations Report 02-4094. https://pubs.usgs.gov/wri/wri024094/pdf/wri024094.pdf
Barnes, M.E., Wintersteen, K., Krebs, E., Nero, P., Tycz, J., Reichert, S. and Zimmerman, S. (2011) 2010 McNenny State Fish Hatchery Operational Report. South Dakota Department of Game, Fish and Parks, Pierre, South Dakota.
Mahler, B.J. and Bourgeais, R. (2013) Dissolved Oxygen Fluctuations in Karst Spring Flow and Implications for Endemic Species: Barton Springs, Edwards Aquifer, Texas, USA. Journal of Hydrology, 505, 291-298. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2013.10.004
Kutty, M.N. (1987) Site Selection for Aquaculture Chemical Features of Water. United Nations Development Programme, African Regional Aquaculture Center, Port Hartcour, RAF/82/009. https://www.fao.org/3/ac175e/ac175e00.htm
Francis-Floyd, R. (2011) Dissolved Oxygen for Fish Production. Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences Department, Florida Cooperative Extension Services, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville, FA27. https://freshwater-aquaculture.extension.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/Dissolved_Oxygen_for_Fish_Production.pdf
Boyd, C.E., Watten, B.J., Goubier, V. and Wu, R. (1994) Gas Supersaturation in Surface Waters of Aquaculture Ponds. Aquaculture Engineering, 13, 31-39. https://doi.org/10.1016/0144-8609(94)90023-X
Dawson, V.K. and Marking, L.L. (1986) An Integrated System for Treating Nitrogen Supersaturated Water. The Progressive Fish-Culturist, 48, 281-284. https://doi.org/10.1577/1548-8640(1986)48 2.0.CO;2
Ott, B.D., Torrans, E.L. and Allen, P.J. (2022) Design of a Vacuum Degassing Apparatus to Reduce Nitrogen Supersaturation and Maintain Hypoxia in Well Water. North American Journal of Aquaculture, 84, 480-485. https://doi.org/10.1002/naaq.10263
Weitkamp, D.E. and Katz, M. (1980) A Review of Dissolved Gas Supersaturation Literature. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society, 109, 659-702. https://doi.org/10.1577/1548-8659(1980)109 2.0.CO;2
Wold, E. (1973) Surface Agitators as a Means to Reduce Nitrogen Gas in a Hatchery Water Supply. The Progressive Fish-Culturist, 35, 143-146. https://doi.org/10.1577/1548-8659(1973)35[143:SAAAMT]2.0.CO;2
Surbeck, H. (2007) Dissolved Gases as Natural Tracers in Karst Hydrogeology; Radon and Beyond. Center of Hydrogeology (CHYN), University of Neuchatel, Neuchatel, 11. http://www.nucfilm.ch/budapest_1.pdf
Rucker, R.R. and Kangas, P.M. (1974) Effect of Nitrogen Supersaturated Water on Coho and Chinook Salmon. The Progressive Fish-Culturist, 36, 152-156. https://doi.org/10.1577/1548-8659(1974)36[152:EONSWO]2.0.CO;2
Bateman, A.S. and Kelly, S.D. (2007) Fertilizer Nitrogen Isotope Signatures. Isotopes in Environmental and Health Studies, 43, 237-247. https://doi.org/10.1080/10256010701550732
Albertin, A.R., Sickman, J.O., Pinowska, A. and Stevenson, R.J. (2012) Identification of Nitrogen Sources and Transformations within Karst Springs Using Isotope Tracers of Nitrogen. Bio-geochemistry, 108, 219-232. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10533-011-9592-0
Heffernan, J.B., Albertinm, A.R., Fork, M.L., Katz, B.G. and Cohen, M.J. (2012) Denitrification and Interference of Nitrogen Sources in the Karstic Floridan Aquifer. Biogeosciences, 9, 1671-1690. https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-9-1671-2012
Eller, K.T. and Katz, B.G. (2017) Nitrogen Source Inventory and Loading Tool: An Integrated Approach toward Restoration of Water-quality Impaired Karst Springs. Journal of Environmental Management, 196, 702-709. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2017.03.059
Cotillon, S. (2013) Impacts of Land Cover Changes on Ecosystem Services Delivery in the Black Hills Ecoregion from 1950 to 2010. Thesis, South Dakota State University, Brookings, Electronic Theses and Dissertations, 1145. https://openprairie.sdstate.edu/etd/1145
Carter, J.M., Driscoll, D.G. and Williamson, J.E. (2002) The Black Hills Hydrology Study. United States Department of Interior, United States Geological Survey, USGS Fact Sheet FS-046-02. https://doi.org/10.3133/fs04602
Mahler, B.J. and Lynch, F.L. (1999) Muddy Waters: Temporal Variation in Sediment Discharging from a Karst Spring. Journal of Hydrology, 214, 165-178. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-1694(98)00287-X
Bakalowicz, M. (2005) Karst Groundwater: A Challenge for New Resources. Hydrogeology Journal, 13, 148-160. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10040-004-0402-9
Kamari, A. and Sheng, J.J. (2018) New Methods to Calculate Water Saturation in Shale and Tight Gas Reservoirs. Open Journal of Yangtze Oil and Gas, 3, 220-230. https://doi.org/10.4236/ojogas.2018.33019
Williamson, J.E. and Carter, J.M. (2001) Water-Quality Characteristics in the Black Hills Area, South Dakota. U.S. Geological Survey, Water-Resources Investigations Report 01-4194. https://pubs.usgs.gov/wri/wri014194/pdf/wri014194.pdf
Stetler, L.D. and Davis, A.D. (2005) Gypsum and Carbonate Karst along the I-90 Development Corridor, Black Hills, South Dakota. U.S. Geological Survey Karst Interest Group Proceedings, Rapid City, 12-15 September 2005, U.S. Geological Survey, Scientific Investigations Report 2005-5160, 134. https://pubs.usgs.gov/sir/2005/5160/PDF/sir2005-5160part3C.pdf
Epstein, J.B. (2005) National Evaporite Karst-Some Western Examples. U.S. Geological Survey Karst Interest Group Proceedings, Rapid City, 12-15 September 2005, U.S. Geological Survey, Scientific Investigations Report 2005-5160, 122-133. https://pubs.usgs.gov/sir/2005/5160/PDF/sir2005-5160part3C.pdf
Naus, C.A., Driscoll, D.G. and Carter, J.M. (2001) Geochemistry of the Madison and Minnelusa Aquifers in the Black Hills Area, South Dakota. U.S. Geological Survey, Water-Resources Investigations Report 01-4129. https://pubs.usgs.gov/wri/wri014129/pdf/wri014129.pdf
Putnam, L.D. and Long, A.J. (2007) Characterization of Ground-Water Flow and Water Quality for the Madison and Minnelusa Aquifers in Northern Lawrence County, South Dakota. U.S. Geological Survey, Scientific Investigations Report 2007-5001. https://doi.org/10.3133/sir20075001
Marsh, M.C. (1910) Notes on the Dissolved Content of Water and Its Effect upon Fishes. Bulletin of the Bureau of Fisheries, 28, 891-906.
Marking, L.L. (1987) Gas Supersaturation in Fisheries: Causes, Concerns, and Cures. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Leaflet 9, Washington DC. https://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a322709.pdf
Nebeker, A.V., Andros, J.D., McCrady, J.K. and Stevens, D.G. (1978) Survival of Steelhead Trout (Salmo gairdneri) Eggs, Embryos, and Fry in Air-Supersaturated Water. Journal of the Fisheries Board of Canada, 35, 261-264. https://doi.org/10.1139/f78-043
Bouck, G.R. (1980) Etiology of Gas Bubble Disease. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society, 109, 703-707. https://doi.org/10.1577/1548-8659(1980)109 2.0.CO;2
Gunnarsli, K.S., Toften, H. and Mortensen, A. (2009) Effects of Nitrogen Gas Supersaturation on Growth and Survival in Larval Cod (Gadus morhua L.). Aquaculture, 288, 344-348. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aquaculture.2008.11.039
Liu, X., Li, K., Du, J., Li, J. and Li, R. (2011) Growth Rate, Catalase and Superoxide Dismutase Activities in Rock Carp (Procypris rabaudi Tchang) Exposed to Supersaturated Total Dissolved Gas. Journal of Zhejiang University SCIENCE B, 12, 909-914. https://doi.org/10.1631/jzus.B1100071
Wang, Y., Li, Y., An, R. and Li, K. (2018) Effects of Total Dissolved Gas Supersaturation on the Swimming Performance of Two Endemic Fish Species in the Upper Yangtze River. Scientific Reports, 8, Article No. 10063. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-28360-7
Krebs, E., Muggli, A.M., Barnes, J.M. and Barnes, M.E. (2018) A Novel Trout Pond Inlet Structure. Journal of Aquaculture Engineering and Fisheries Research, 4, 120-126.
Caasi, J.M.A., Krebs, E., Huysman, N., Voorhees, J.M. and Barnes, M.E. (2020) A Degassing Inlet Structure for Aquaculture Ponds. World Journal of Engineering and Technology, 8, 159-167. https://doi.org/10.4236/wjet.2020.82013
Driscoll, D.G., Carter, J.M., Williamson, J.E. and Putnam, L.D. (2002) Hydrology of the Black Hills Area, South Dakota. United States Department of Interior, United States Geological Survey, Water-Resources Investigations Report 02-4094. https://pubs.usgs.gov/wri/wri024094/pdf/wri024094.pdf
Barnes, M.E., Wintersteen, K., Krebs, E., Nero, P., Tycz, J., Reichert, S. and Zimmerman, S. (2011) 2010 McNenny State Fish Hatchery Operational Report. South Dakota Department of Game, Fish and Parks, Pierre, South Dakota.
Mahler, B.J. and Bourgeais, R. (2013) Dissolved Oxygen Fluctuations in Karst Spring Flow and Implications for Endemic Species: Barton Springs, Edwards Aquifer, Texas, USA. Journal of Hydrology, 505, 291-298. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2013.10.004
Kutty, M.N. (1987) Site Selection for Aquaculture Chemical Features of Water. United Nations Development Programme, African Regional Aquaculture Center, Port Hartcour, RAF/82/009. https://www.fao.org/3/ac175e/ac175e00.htm
Francis-Floyd, R. (2011) Dissolved Oxygen for Fish Production. Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences Department, Florida Cooperative Extension Services, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville, FA27. https://freshwater-aquaculture.extension.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/Dissolved_Oxygen_for_Fish_Production.pdf
Boyd, C.E., Watten, B.J., Goubier, V. and Wu, R. (1994) Gas Supersaturation in Surface Waters of Aquaculture Ponds. Aquaculture Engineering, 13, 31-39. https://doi.org/10.1016/0144-8609(94)90023-X
Dawson, V.K. and Marking, L.L. (1986) An Integrated System for Treating Nitrogen Supersaturated Water. The Progressive Fish-Culturist, 48, 281-284. https://doi.org/10.1577/1548-8640(1986)48 2.0.CO;2
Ott, B.D., Torrans, E.L. and Allen, P.J. (2022) Design of a Vacuum Degassing Apparatus to Reduce Nitrogen Supersaturation and Maintain Hypoxia in Well Water. North American Journal of Aquaculture, 84, 480-485. https://doi.org/10.1002/naaq.10263
Weitkamp, D.E. and Katz, M. (1980) A Review of Dissolved Gas Supersaturation Literature. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society, 109, 659-702. https://doi.org/10.1577/1548-8659(1980)109 2.0.CO;2
Wold, E. (1973) Surface Agitators as a Means to Reduce Nitrogen Gas in a Hatchery Water Supply. The Progressive Fish-Culturist, 35, 143-146. https://doi.org/10.1577/1548-8659(1973)35[143:SAAAMT]2.0.CO;2
Surbeck, H. (2007) Dissolved Gases as Natural Tracers in Karst Hydrogeology; Radon and Beyond. Center of Hydrogeology (CHYN), University of Neuchatel, Neuchatel, 11. http://www.nucfilm.ch/budapest_1.pdf
Rucker, R.R. and Kangas, P.M. (1974) Effect of Nitrogen Supersaturated Water on Coho and Chinook Salmon. The Progressive Fish-Culturist, 36, 152-156. https://doi.org/10.1577/1548-8659(1974)36[152:EONSWO]2.0.CO;2
Bateman, A.S. and Kelly, S.D. (2007) Fertilizer Nitrogen Isotope Signatures. Isotopes in Environmental and Health Studies, 43, 237-247. https://doi.org/10.1080/10256010701550732
Albertin, A.R., Sickman, J.O., Pinowska, A. and Stevenson, R.J. (2012) Identification of Nitrogen Sources and Transformations within Karst Springs Using Isotope Tracers of Nitrogen. Bio-geochemistry, 108, 219-232. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10533-011-9592-0
Heffernan, J.B., Albertinm, A.R., Fork, M.L., Katz, B.G. and Cohen, M.J. (2012) Denitrification and Interference of Nitrogen Sources in the Karstic Floridan Aquifer. Biogeosciences, 9, 1671-1690. https://doi.org/10.5194/bg-9-1671-2012
Eller, K.T. and Katz, B.G. (2017) Nitrogen Source Inventory and Loading Tool: An Integrated Approach toward Restoration of Water-quality Impaired Karst Springs. Journal of Environmental Management, 196, 702-709. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2017.03.059
Cotillon, S. (2013) Impacts of Land Cover Changes on Ecosystem Services Delivery in the Black Hills Ecoregion from 1950 to 2010. Thesis, South Dakota State University, Brookings, Electronic Theses and Dissertations, 1145. https://openprairie.sdstate.edu/etd/1145
Carter, J.M., Driscoll, D.G. and Williamson, J.E. (2002) The Black Hills Hydrology Study. United States Department of Interior, United States Geological Survey, USGS Fact Sheet FS-046-02. https://doi.org/10.3133/fs04602
Mahler, B.J. and Lynch, F.L. (1999) Muddy Waters: Temporal Variation in Sediment Discharging from a Karst Spring. Journal of Hydrology, 214, 165-178. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-1694(98)00287-X
Bakalowicz, M. (2005) Karst Groundwater: A Challenge for New Resources. Hydrogeology Journal, 13, 148-160. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10040-004-0402-9
Kamari, A. and Sheng, J.J. (2018) New Methods to Calculate Water Saturation in Shale and Tight Gas Reservoirs. Open Journal of Yangtze Oil and Gas, 3, 220-230. https://doi.org/10.4236/ojogas.2018.33019