Identifying efficient and environmentally sustainable alternatives to silicon remains a major challenge for next-generation photovoltaics. Here, a CdS/CdTe/CH 3 NH 3 SnI 3 /Spiro-OMeTAD dual-absorber heterojunction solar cell is investigated using the SCAPS-1D simulation framework, where CdTe and the lead-free tin-based perovskite CH 3 NH 3 SnI 3 jointly form the active absorbing layers. A systematic parametric study is performed to evaluate the influence of absorber thickness, doping concentration and operating temperature on device performance. The simulations show that a favorable band alignment at the CdTe/CH 3 NH 3 SnI 3 interface, together with balanced absorber thicknesses and moderate doping, enhances charge separation and reduces recombination losses. Under optimized and intentionally idealized numerical assumptions, the proposed device reaches an open-circuit voltage of 1.017 V, a short-circuit current density of 34.429 mA cm − 2 , a fill factor of 82.07%, and a theoretical power conversion efficiency of 28.73%. The observed trends clearly highlight the potential of combining CdTe with lead-free tin-based perovskites in a dual-absorber heterojunction architecture. This study provides valuable design guidelines for the development of high-efficiency, lead-free thin-film solar cells and offers a solid theoretical framework for future experimental investigations.
KeywordsCdTe/Perovskite HeterojunctionLead-Free Perovskite Solar CellSCAPS-1D SimulationDual Absorber Solar CellPhotovoltaic OptimizationThin-Film Photovoltaics
Jeyakumar, B., Vasudevan, T., Ramalingam, S. and Chen, L. (2025) Enhancing Perovskite Solar Cell Efficiency and Stability with P-(Trifluoromethyl and Trifluoromethoxy) Phenylboronic Acid Additives. ACS Applied Energy Materials , 8, 11925-11935. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsaem.5c01079
Rühle, S. (2016) Tabulated Values of the Shockley-Queisser Limit for Single Junction Solar Cells. Solar Energy , 130, 139-147. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2016.02.015
McCandless, B.E. and Sites, J.R. (2010) Cadmium Telluride Solar Cells. In: Luque, A. and Hegedus, S., Eds., Handbook of Photovoltaic Science and Engineering , Wiley, 600-641.
Green, M.A., Dunlop, E.D., Yoshita, M., Kopidakis, N., Bothe, K., Siefer, G., et al . (2025) Solar Cell Efficiency Tables (Version 66). Progress in Photovoltaics : Research and Applications , 33, 795-810. https://doi.org/10.1002/pip.3919
Stranks, S.D. and Snaith, H.J. (2015) Metal-Halide Perovskites for Photovoltaic and Light-Emitting Devices. Nature Nanotechnology , 10, 391-402. https://doi.org/10.1038/nnano.2015.90
Noel, N.K., Stranks, S.D., Abate, A., Wehrenfennig, C., Guarnera, S., Haghighirad, A., et al . (2014) Lead-Free Organic-Inorganic Tin Halide Perovskites for Photovoltaic Applications. Energy & Environmental Science , 7, 3061-3068. https://doi.org/10.1039/c4ee01076k
Green, M.A., Ho-Baillie, A. and Snaith, H.J. (2014) The Emergence of Perovskite Solar Cells. Nature Photonics , 8, 506-514. https://doi.org/10.1038/nphoton.2014.134
Polman, A., Knight, M., Garnett, E.C., Ehrler, B. and Sinke, W.C. (2016) Photovoltaic Materials: Present Efficiencies and Future Challenges. Science , 352, aad4424. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aad4424
Bhari, B.Z., Rahman, K.S., Chelvanathan, P. and Ibrahim, M.A. (2023) Numerical Simulation of Ultrathin CDTE Solar Cell by SCAPS-1D. IOP Conference Series : Materials Science and Engineering , 1278, Article ID: 012002. https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899x/1278/1/012002
Biswas, B.C., Shimul, A.I., Ghosh, A., Awaad, N.S. and Ibrahium, H.A. (2025) Exploring Lead‐free ca 3 bicl 3 ‐based Perovskite Solar Cells: A Computational Comparison of Charge Transport Layers with DFT and SCAPS-1D. Journal of Computational Chemistry , 46, e70231. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcc.70231
Decock, K., Khelifi, S. and Burgelman, M. (2011) Modelling Multivalent Defects in Thin Film Solar Cells. Thin Solid Films , 519, 7481-7484. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsf.2010.12.039
Burgelman, M., Nollet, P. and Degrave, S. (2000) Modelling Polycrystalline Semiconductor Solar Cells. Thin Solid Films , 361, 527-532. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0040-6090(99)00825-1
Banik, S., Das, A., Das, B.K. and Islam, N. (2024) Numerical Simulation and Performance Optimization of a Lead-Free Inorganic Perovskite Solar Cell Using SCAPS-1D. Heliyon , 10, e23985. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e23985
Biswas, B.C., Shimul, A.I., Alshihri, A.A., El-Rayyes, A., Khan, M.T. and Rahman, M.A. (2025) Design and Optimization of Ca 3 BiI 3 -Based Solar Cells through a Comprehensive Analysis of Optoelectronic Properties and Charge Transport Layers Using Simulation and ML. Physica B : Condensed Matter , 717, Article ID: 417770. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physb.2025.417770
Sze, S.M. and Ng, K.K. (2007) Physics of Semiconductor Devices. Wiley. https://doi.org/10.1002/0470068329
Minemoto, T. and Murata, M. (2014) Device Modeling of Perovskite Solar Cells Based on Structural Similarity with Thin Film Inorganic Semiconductor Solar Cells. Journal of Applied Physics , 116, Article ID: 054505. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.4891982
Ouslimane, T., Et-taya, L., Elmaimouni, L. and Benami, A. (2021) Impact of Absorber Layer Thickness, Defect Density, and Operating Temperature on the Performance of MAPbI 3 Solar Cells Based on ZnO Electron Transporting Material. Heliyon , 7, e06379. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e06379
Mostafa, S.M.G., Utsho, K.I.F., Rahman, M.S., Tarekuzzaman, M., Alsalmi, O., Rasheduzzaman, M., et al . (2025) Device Engineering and Performance Analysis of Cs 2 AgSbBr 6 Perovskite Solar Cells Using SCAPS-1D. Inorganic Chemistry Communications , 178, Article ID: 114636. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.inoche.2025.114636
Nelson, J. (2003) The Physics of Solar Cells. Imperial College Press. https://doi.org/10.1142/p276
Parathraju, P. and Umasankar, P. (2025) Performance Evaluation of Ultrathin CdTe-Based Solar Cells with Dual Absorbers via SCAPS-1D Simulation. Scientific Reports , 15, Article No. 26428. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-12006-6
Stolterfoht, M., Wolff, C.M., Márquez, J.A., Zhang, S., Hages, C.J., Rothhardt, D., et al . (2018) Visualization and Suppression of Interfacial Recombination for High-Efficiency Large-Area Pin Perovskite Solar Cells. Nature Energy , 3, 847-854. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41560-018-0219-8
Skoplaki, E. and Palyvos, J.A. (2009) On the Temperature Dependence of Photovoltaic Module Electrical Performance: A Review of Efficiency/Power Correlations. Solar Energy , 83, 614-624. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2008.10.008
Shafi, M.A., Ullah, H., Ullah, S., Khan, L., Bibi, S. and Soucase, B.M. (2022) Numerical Simulation of Lead-Free Sn-Based Perovskite Solar Cell by Using SCAPS-1D. Engineering Proceedings , 12, Article 92. https://doi.org/10.3390/engproc2021012092
Minemoto, T. and Murata, M. (2014) Impact of Work Function of Back Contact of Perovskite Solar Cells without Hole Transport Material Analyzed by Device Simulation. Current Applied Physics , 14, 1428-1433. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cap.2014.08.002
Kirchartz, T. and Rau, U. (2018) What Makes a Good Solar Cell? Advanced Energy Materials , 8, Article ID: 1703385. https://doi.org/10.1002/aenm.201703385
Sultana, B., Rahman, M.M., Harun-Or-Rashid, M., Haque, M.D., Irfan, A., Chaudhry, A.R., et al . (2024) A New Design and Optimization of SnSe-Based Dual Absorber Solar Cell with Efficiency above 28%. Journal of Nanoparticle Research , 26, Article No. 181. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11051-024-06085-1
Shimul, A.I., Biswas, B.C., Keya, L.R., Islam, S., Rahman, M.A., KRIAA, K., et al . (2026) Machine Learning Guided Optimization of Lead Free K 2 TlSbCl 6 /Na 2 ScAuI 6 Dual Absorber Double Perovskite Solar Cells. Solar Energy , 307, Article ID: 114348. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2026.114348
Chandra Biswas, B., Kriaa, K., Shimul, A.I., Maatki, C., Rahman, M.A. and Elboughdir, N. (2025) Deep Insights into Lead-Free Sr 3 BiI 3 -Based Anti-Perovskite Solar Cells: Optimization Strategies and Impedance Spectroscopy via Numerical Simulation and Machine Learning. RSC Advances , 15, 43702-43726. https://doi.org/10.1039/d5ra07289a