Assessing the Suitability of Zimado Clay as a Precursor for Sustainable Lightweight Expanded Clay Aggregate (LECA) Production — Oak Academic Publishing
Research ArticleOpen AccessGoogle Scholar indexed
Assessing the Suitability of Zimado Clay as a Precursor for Sustainable Lightweight Expanded Clay Aggregate (LECA) Production
Department of Civil Engineering, National Advanced School of Public Works, Yaoundé, Cameroon
,
Department of Civil Engineering, National Advanced School of Public Works, Yaoundé, Cameroon
,
Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Garoua, Garoua, Cameroon
,
Department of Civil Engineering, National Advanced School of Public Works, Yaoundé, Cameroon
,
Department of Fundamental and Cross-Cutting Sciences, National Advanced School of Public Works, Yaoundé, Cameroon
,
Research, Experimental and Production Centre, Higher Institute of Agriculture, Wood, Water and Environment, University of Ebolowa, Ebolowa, Cameroon
,
Department of Civil Engineering and Architecture, National Advanced School of Engineering, University of Maroua, Maroua, Cameroon
1 Department of Civil Engineering, National Advanced School of Public Works, Yaoundé, Cameroon
2 Department of Civil Engineering, National Advanced School of Public Works, Yaoundé, Cameroon
3 Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Garoua, Garoua, Cameroon
4 Department of Civil Engineering, National Advanced School of Public Works, Yaoundé, Cameroon
5 Department of Fundamental and Cross-Cutting Sciences, National Advanced School of Public Works, Yaoundé, Cameroon
6 Research, Experimental and Production Centre, Higher Institute of Agriculture, Wood, Water and Environment, University of Ebolowa, Ebolowa, Cameroon
7 Department of Civil Engineering and Architecture, National Advanced School of Engineering, University of Maroua, Maroua, Cameroon
The supply of conventional aggregates represents a well-established major challenge in several landlocked localities of the Lake Chad Basin, particularly in the Zimado area, where such materials are typically sourced from quarries located at considerable distances. In response to this constraint, the present study aimed, for the first time, to carry out a comprehensive physical, chemical and mineralogical characterization of Zimado clay, with a view to assessing its thermal expansion potential for the production of lightweight aggregates via heat treatment. Three representative samples (ZC1, ZC2 and ZC3) were collected at a depth of 70 cm to ensure adequate spatial representativeness. These samples were subjected to particle size analysis (NF P 94-056/057), Atterberg limit determination (NF P 94-051) and absolute density measurement, alongside geochemical and mineralogical analyses including X-ray fluorescence (XRF), X-ray diffraction (XRD) and Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy. The results reveal that Zimado clay exhibits a silty-clayey texture, with silt and clay fractions accounting for 41.41% and 24.84%, respectively, a moderate plasticity index ranging from 15.68% to 23.12%, and a mean absolute density of 2.409 g/cm 3 . The chemical composition is predominantly aluminosilicate in nature, with SiO 2 contents ranging from 63.06 to 65.90 wt% and Al 2 O 3 from 14.94 to 15.60 wt%. The mineralogical assemblage is dominated by quartz, kaolinite, illite, feldspars and ferruginous phases. Assessment against Riley’s (1951) expansion screening criteria indicates that two of the three compositional thresholds are met by the measured composition; only the total flux oxide content (~10.55 - 11.78 wt%) falls marginally below the recommended minimum of 13 wt%. Collectively, these results provide a first baseline characterization of Zimado clay and support its preliminary identification as a physicochemical promising precursor for lightweight expanded clay aggregate production; empirical validation through firing trials remains necessary before production suitability can be confirmed.
Dominguez, C. and Foster, V. (2011) Cameroon’s Infrastructure: A Continental Perspective. https://doi.org/10.1596/1813-9450-5822
Tažiková, A. and Struková, Z. (2021) The Impact of Logistics on the Cost of Prefabricated Construction. Acta Logistica , 8, 65-71. https://doi.org/10.22306/al.v8i1.204
Berredjem, L., Arabi, N. and Molez, L. (2020) Mechanical and Durability Properties of Concrete Based on Recycled Coarse and Fine Aggregates Produced from Demolished Concrete. Construction and Building Materials , 246, Article 118421. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.118421
Calderon, C., Cantu, C. and Chuhan-Pole, P. (2018) Infrastructure Development in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Scorecard. World Bank.
Abdulazeez, A. (2025) Sand Dynamics and Utilization in the Geographical Context of Fluvial Geomorphology and Watershed Hydrology. Journal of Geography , Environment and Earth Science International , 29, 46-61. https://doi.org/10.9734/jgeesi/2025/v29i6905
Mathias Kondolf, G. (1994) Geomorphic and Environmental Effects of Instream Gravel Mining. Landscape and Urban Planning , 28, 225-243. https://doi.org/10.1016/0169-2046(94)90010-8
Abdullah, A.H. and Mohammed, S.D. (2023) Effect of Lightweight Expanded Clay Aggregate as Partial Replacement of Coarse Aggregate on the Mechanical Properties of Fire-Exposed Concrete. Journal of the Mechanical Behavior of Materials , 32, Article No. 20220299. https://doi.org/10.1515/jmbm-2022-0299
Wei, Y., Chen, Z., Yio, M., Cheeseman, C., Wang, H. and Poon, C.S. (2025) Advanced Moisture Control in Porous Aggregates for Improved Lightweight High-Performance Concrete. Cement and Concrete Composites , 155, Article 105826. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2024.105826
Pongsopha, P., Sukontasukkul, P., Zhang, H. and Limkatanyu, S. (2022) Thermal and Acoustic Properties of Sustainable Structural Lightweight Aggregate Rubberized Concrete. Results in Engineering , 13, Article 100333. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rineng.2022.100333
Nadesan, M.S. and Dinakar, P. (2017) Structural Concrete Using Sintered Flyash Lightweight Aggregate: A Review. Construction and Building Materials , 154, 928-944. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2017.08.005
Riley, C.M. (1951) Relation of Chemical Properties to the Bloating of Clays. Journal of the American Ceramic Society , 34, 121-128. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1151-2916.1951.tb11619.x
Aboudi Mana, S.C., Hanafiah, M.M. and Chowdhury, A.J.K. (2017) Environmental Characteristics of Clay and Clay-Based Minerals. Geology , Ecology , and Landscapes , 1, 155-161. https://doi.org/10.1080/24749508.2017.1361128
Gliozzo, E. (2020) Ceramic Technology. How to Reconstruct the Firing Process. Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences , 12, Article No. 260. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12520-020-01133-y
da Silva Neto, J.A., dos Anjos, M.A.S., Dutra, R.P.S., Mendonça de Souza, M. and Pederneiras, C.M. (2025) Optimization via Taguchi of Artificial Lightweight Aggregates Obtained from Kaolinite Clay and Ceramic Waste: Development and Industrial Applications. Buildings , 15, Article 2003. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15122003
Decleer, J. and Viaene, W. (1993) Rupelian Boom Clay as Raw Material for Expanded Clay Manufacturing. Applied Clay Science , 8, 111-128. https://doi.org/10.1016/0169-1317(93)90032-v
Liao, Y.-C. and Huang, C.-Y. (2011) Effects of Cao Addition on Lightweight Aggregates Produced from Water Reservoir Sediment. Construction and Building Materials , 25, 2997-3002. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2010.12.034
Wie, Y.M., Lee, K.G. and Lee, K.H. (2020) Chemical Design of Lightweight Aggregate to Prevent Adhesion at Bloating Activation Temperature. Journal of Asian Ceramic Societies , 8, 245-254. https://doi.org/10.1080/21870764.2020.1725259
Hammond, G.P. (2018) System Characterisation of Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) Systems. In: Clair, G., Patricia, T., Sarah, M., Naomi, V. and Temitope, F., Eds., Biomass Energy with Carbon Capture and Storage ( BECCS ): Unlocking Negative Emissions , John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, 129-162. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119237716.ch7
Schandl, H., Fischer‐Kowalski, M., West, J., Giljum, S., Dittrich, M., Eisenmenger, N., et al . (2017) Global Material Flows and Resource Productivity: Forty Years of Evidence. Journal of Industrial Ecology , 22, 827-838. https://doi.org/10.1111/jiec.12626
Uceda-Rodríguez, M., Moreno-Maroto, J.M., Cobo-Ceacero, C.J., López-García, A.B., Cotes-Palomino, T. and Martínez-García, C. (2022) Comparative Life Cycle Assessment of Lightweight Aggregates Made from Waste—Applying the Circular Economy. Applied Sciences , 12, Article 1917. https://doi.org/10.3390/app12041917
Djongyang, N. (2022) Climate Change and Some Adaptation Measures in the Sudano-Sahelian Zone of Cameroon. E 3 S Web of Conferences , 354, Article 01004. https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202235401004
Nkiaka, E., Nawaz, N.R. and Lovett, J.C. (2017) Analysis of Rainfall Variability in the Logone Catchment, Lake Chad Basin. International Journal of Climatology , 37, 3553-3564. https://doi.org/10.1002/joc.4936
Mkoumbe, E., Estelle Eric, F.T.M., Albert, E.Y., Philippe, N.N. and Tabod, T.C. (2019) Depositional and Structural Styles in the Logone Birni Basin (LBB), Northern Cameroon, from 3D Potential Field Modeling: Preliminary Results. Open Journal of Geology , 9, 226-244. https://doi.org/10.4236/ojg.2019.94016
Westra, T. and De Wulf, R.R. (2009) Modelling Yearly Flooding Extent of the Waza-Logone Floodplain in Northern Cameroon Based on MODIS and Rainfall Data. International Journal of Remote Sensing , 30, 5527-5548. https://doi.org/10.1080/01431160802672872
Sababa, E., Ekoa Bessa, A.Z., Aye, B.A., Loubahndem, A.S. and Welba, M. (2023) Alluvial Sediments in Bol Area (Lake Chad Basin): Implications for Source Area-Weathering and Tectonic Settings. Journal of Sedimentary Environments , 8, 563-586. https://doi.org/10.1007/s43217-023-00148-4
Loule, J. and Pospisil, L. (2013) Geophysical Evidence of Cretaceous Volcanics in Logone Birni Basin (Northern Cameroon), Central Africa, and Consequences for the West and Central African Rift System. Tectonophysics , 583, 88-100. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tecto.2012.10.021
Bate, S.C.C. (1979) Guide for Structural Lightweight Aggregate Concrete: Report of ACI Committee 213. International Journal of Cement Composites and Lightweight Concrete , 1, 5-6. https://doi.org/10.1016/0262-5075(79)90004-6
Tsozué, D., Nzeukou, A.N., Kagonbé, B.P., Madi, A.B., Mache, J.R., Bitom, D.L., et al . (2022) Genesis and Assessment of Clay Materials Suitability for Earthenware Production in Northern Cameroon. Arabian Journal of Geosciences , 15, Article No. 1376. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-022-10603-7
Andrade, F.A., Al-Qureshi, H.A. and Hotza, D. (2011) Measuring the Plasticity of Clays: A Review. Applied Clay Science , 51, 1-7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clay.2010.10.028
Holtz, R. and Kovacs, W.D. (1981) An Introduction to Geotechnical Engineering. Prentice-Hall, 747.
Ntouala, R.F.D., Ndome-Priso, E., Nanga, M.T.B., Mutlen, J.A., Ze, A.N., Onana, V.L., et al . (2023) Mineralogy, Geochemistry, and Geotechnical Characterization of Lateritic and Alluvial Clay Deposits from Batouri, East Cameroon. Arabian Journal of Geosciences , 16, Article No. 355. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-023-11451-9
Zhu, Z., Zhou, Y., Li, X., Liu, L., Lu, Y. and Ren, T. (2025) Measuring Soil Particle Density Using Water Pycnometer: Influencing Factors, Errors, and Correction. Soil Science Society of America Journal , 89, e70073. https://doi.org/10.1002/saj2.70073
Wang, Y., He, Y., Zhan, J. and Li, Z. (2022) Identification of Soil Particle Size Distribution in Different Sedimentary Environments at River Basin Scale by Fractal Dimension. Scientific Reports , 12, Article No. 10960. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-15141-6
Khallah, Y.I., Lamido, A.K., Bala Muhammad, and Musa, A.S. (2025) Spatial and Geo-Statistical Analysis of Variability of the Soil Particle Size Distribution in River Wudil Floodplain, Kano State, Nigeria. Sahel Journal of Life Sciences FUDMA , 3, 228-238. https://doi.org/10.33003/sajols-2025-030222-28
Guan, X., Wang, J., Liu, G., Xiao, M., Ding, Y. and Chen, J. (2023) Grain Size Characteristics of Surface Sediment in the Jilantai Salt Lake Protection System after Long‐Term Wind‐Sand Activities. Land Degradation & Development , 35, 321-333. https://doi.org/10.1002/ldr.4918
Temga, J.P., Mache, J.R., Madi, A.B., Nguetnkam, J.P. and Bitom, D.L. (2019) Ceramics Applications of Clay in Lake Chad Basin, Central Africa. Applied Clay Science , 171, 118-132. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clay.2019.02.003
Wen, D., Wang, J., Ding, J. and Zhang, Z. (2025) Distribution Characteristics and Relationship between Soil Salinity and Soil Particle Size in Ebinur Lake Wetland, Xin-jiang. Land , 14, Article 297.
Li, H., Meng, Z., Dang, X., Qi, S. and Bao, S. (2022) Grain Size Characteristics from Dry Playa Chagan Nur in Northern China. Polish Journal of Environmental Studies , 32, 113-124. https://doi.org/10.15244/pjoes/153022
Zhao, C., Shao, M., Jia, X. and Zhang, C. (2016) Particle Size Distribution of Soils (0-500 cm) in the Loess Plateau, China. Geoderma Regional , 7, 251-258. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geodrs.2016.05.003
Sowiński, P., Smólczyński, S., Orzechowski, M., Kalisz, B. and Bieniek, A. (2023) Effect of Soil Agricultural Use on Particle-Size Distribution in Young Glacial Landscape Slopes. Agriculture , 13, Article 584. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture13030584
Kagonbé, B.P., Tsozué, D., Nzeukou, A.N. and Ngos III, S. (2021) Mineralogical, Geochemical and Physico-Chemical Characterization of Clay Raw Materials from Three Clay Deposits in Northern Cameroon. Journal of Geoscience and Environment Protection , 9, 86-99. https://doi.org/10.4236/gep.2021.96005
Nzeukou Nzeugang, A., Tsozué, D., Kagonbé Pagna, B., Balo Madi, A., Fankam Deumeni, A., Ngos, S., et al . (2021) Clayey Soils from Boulgou (North Cameroon): Geotechnical, Mineralogical, Chemical Characteristics and Properties of Their Fired Products. SN Applied Sciences , 3, Article No. 551. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-021-04541-4
Moctar, I.B., Yannick, T.L., Albertine, A.S., Mache, J.R. and Mominou, N. (2023) Physico-Chemical, Mineralogical Characterization, and Ceramic Properties of Clay Materials from South Mindif (Far North, Cameroon). JMST Advances , 5, 13-26. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42791-023-00047-9
Yanné, E., Oumarou, A.A., Nde, B.D. and Danwé, R. (2018) Physico-Chemical and Mineralogical Characterization of Two Clay Materials of the Far North Region of Cameroon (Makabaye, Maroua). Advances in Materials Physics and Chemistry , 8, 378-386. https://doi.org/10.4236/ampc.2018.89025
Noubissie, N.M.M., Nzeukou, A.N., Tsozué, D., et al. (2016) Origin, Mineralogical Distribution, and Industrial Suitability of Clay-Rich Soils in the Semi-Arid Zone of Cameroon. Geosystems Geoenvironment , 5, Article 100528. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geogeo.2026.100528
Bakaiyang, L., Duc, M., Boussafir, Y., Szymkiewicz, F. and Madjadoumbaye, J. (2024) Swelling-Shrinkage Properties of Compacted Karal Soils from North and Far North Cameroon: A Physicochemical and Geotechnical Approach. European Journal of Environmental and Civil Engineering , 28, 2345-2365. https://doi.org/10.1080/19648189.2024.2314114
BiLGiÇ, C. and Bilgiç, Ş. (2019) Fourier dönüşümlü kizilötesi (Ftir) spektroskopisinin killerin analizlerinde kullanilmasi. Nevşehir Bilim ve Teknoloji Dergisi , 8, 37-46.
Madejová, J. and Komadel, P. (2001) Baseline Studies of the Clay Minerals Society Source Clays: Infrared Methods. Clays and Clay Minerals , 49, 410-432. https://doi.org/10.1346/ccmn.2001.0490508
Kloprogge, J. (2018) The Kaolin Group: Hydroxyl Groups. In: (Theo) Kloprogge, J., Ed., Spectroscopic Methods in the Study of Kaolin Minerals and Their Modifications , Springer International Publishing, 41-96. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-02373-7_3
Jozanikohan, G. and Abarghooei, M.N. (2022) The Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) Analysis for the Clay Mineralogy Studies in a Clastic Reservoir. Journal of Petroleum Exploration and Production Technology , 12, 2093-2106. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13202-021-01449-y
Madjihingam, N., Pagore, D., Mache, J.R., Warabi, B., Kagonbe, B.P. and Kouotou, P.M. (2024) Clay Materials for Ceramics Application from N’djamena in the Chad Republic: Mineralogical, Physicochemical and Microstructural Characterization. Journal of Materials Science and Chemical Engineering , 12, 31-48. https://doi.org/10.4236/msce.2024.122003
Sababa, E., Bessa, A.Z.E., Beyanu, A.A., Loubahndem, A.S.-B. and Welba, M. (2023) Morphological, Mineralogical and Geochemical Features of Alluvial Sediments in Bol area (Lake Chad Basin): Implications for Source Area-Weathering and Tectonic Settings. Research Square.
Djomgoue, P. and Njopwouo, D. (2013) FT-IR Spectroscopy Applied for Surface Clays Characterization. Journal of Surface Engineered Materials and Advanced Technology , 3, 275-282. https://doi.org/10.4236/jsemat.2013.34037
Bernhardt, M., Tellesbø, H., Justnes, H. and Wiik, K. (2013) Mechanical Properties of Lightweight Aggregates. Journal of the European Ceramic Society , 33, 2731-2743. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeurceramsoc.2013.05.013
Dondi, M., Cappelletti, P., D’Amore, M., de Gennaro, R., Graziano, S.F., Langella, A., et al . (2016) Lightweight Aggregates from Waste Materials: Reappraisal of Expansion Behavior and Prediction Schemes for Bloating. Construction and Building Materials , 127, 394-409. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2016.09.111
Yeşilbaş, M., Holmboe, M. and Boily, J. (2018) Cohesive Vibrational and Structural Depiction of Intercalated Water in Montmorillonite. ACS Earth and Space Chemistry , 2, 38-47. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsearthspacechem.7b00103
Frost, R.L., Kristof, J., Paroz, G.N. and Kloprogge, J.T. (1998) Role of Water in the Intercalation of Kaolinite with Hydrazine. Journal of Colloid and Interface Science , 208, 216-225. https://doi.org/10.1006/jcis.1998.5780
Chen, L., He, X., Liu, H., Qian, L. and Kim, S.H. (2018) Water Adsorption on Hydrophilic and Hydrophobic Surfaces of Silicon. The Journal of Physical Chemistry C , 122, 11385-11391. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jpcc.8b01821
Peng, L., Qisui, W., Xi, L. and Chaocan, Z. (2009) Investigation of the States of Water and OH Groups on the Surface of Silica. Colloids and Surfaces A : Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects , 334, 112-115. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.colsurfa.2008.10.028
D’Elia, A., Pinto, D., Eramo, G., Laviano, R., Palomo, A. and Fernández-Jiménez, A. (2020) Effect of Alkali Concentration on the Activation of Carbonate-High Illite Clay. Applied Sciences , 10, Article 2203. https://doi.org/10.3390/app10072203
Hasanin, T.H.A., Alsahli, S.A., Altaleb, H.A., Alshammari, B.H. and Tantawy, M.A. (2025) Hydration Characteristics of Cement Blended with Thermally Reactivated Recycled Concrete Demolition Waste. Scientific Reports , 16, Article No. 1499. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-31881-7
Pisciella, P. and Pelino, M. (2005) FTIR Spectroscopy Investigation of the Crystallisation Process in an Iron Rich Glass. Journal of the European Ceramic Society , 25, 1855-1861. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeurceramsoc.2004.06.012
Liu, H., Kaya, H., Lin, Y., Ogrinc, A. and Kim, S.H. (2022) Vibrational Spectroscopy Analysis of Silica and Silicate Glass Networks. Journal of the American Ceramic Society , 105, 2355-2384. https://doi.org/10.1111/jace.18206
Peternella, W.S. and Costa, A.C.S.D. (2021) Evaluation of a Toposequence of Soils Derived from Basalt by Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy. OALib , 8, 1-17. https://doi.org/10.4236/oalib.1107867
Moussa, A., Novello, A., Lebatard, A., Decarreau, A., Fontaine, C., Barboni, D., et al . (2016) Lake Chad Sedimentation and Environments during the Late Miocene and Pliocene: New Evidence from Mineralogy and Chemistry of the Bol Core Sediments. Journal of African Earth Sciences , 118, 192-204. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2016.02.023
Comin, A.B., Zaccaron, A., de Souza Nandi, V., Inocente, J.M., Muller, T.G., Dal Bó, A.G., et al . (2021) Measurement of Apparent Sintering Activation Energy for Densification of Clays. Clay Minerals , 56, 299-305. https://doi.org/10.1180/clm.2022.11
Bebbata, W., Djoda, F.P., Ndjolba, M., Kagonbé, B.P. and Danwé, R. (2024) Geochemistry and Microstructure of Construction Materials from the Eastern Districts of N’Djamena Chad with a View to Their Stabilization in the Building and Pottery. Materials Sciences and Applications , 15, 431‑449. https://doi.org/10.4236/msa.2024.1510029
Kusiorowski, R., Zaremba, T., Piotrowski, J. and Podwórny, J. (2015) Utilisation of Cement-Asbestos Wastes by Thermal Treatment and the Potential Possibility Use of Obtained Product for the Clinker Bricks Manufacture. Journal of Materials Science , 50, 6757-6767. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10853-015-9231-6
Ghizdavet, Z.D., Simion, C.A., Ficai, A., Oprea, O., Fierascu, R.C., Marin, M.L., et al . (2025) Investigations on an Ancient Mortar from Ulpia Traiana Sarmizegetusa Archaeological Site, Romania. Applied Sciences , 15, Article 5780. https://doi.org/10.3390/app15105780
Deon, F., van Ruitenbeek, F., van der Werff, H., van der Meijde, M. and Marcatelli, C. (2022) Detection of Interlayered Illite/Smectite Clay Minerals with XRD, SEM Analyses and Reflectance Spectroscopy. Sensors , 22, Article 3602. https://doi.org/10.3390/s22093602
Audu, J. and Osuji, S. (2025) Evaluation of Makurdi Clays for Sustainable Brick Production and Their Pozzolanic Potential. Discover Civil Engineering , 2, Article No. 175. https://doi.org/10.1007/s44290-025-00338-1
Goltsman, B.M. and Yatsenko, E.A. (2024) Modern Fluxing Materials and Analysis of Their Impact on Silicate Structures: A Review. Open Ceramics , 17, Article 100540. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oceram.2024.100540
Shao, Y., Hu, G., Liu, Z., Xu, X., Zhang, M., Ding, C., et al . (2022) Determination of Band Structure of Naturally Occurring Goethite with Al Substitution: A Case Study of Zhushan Iron Zone. Materials , 15, Article 1465. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15041465
Smoleń, J., Fross, K., Groń, K., Orzechowska, K., Stępień, K., Junak, G., et al . (2024) Utilization of Lightweight Ceramic Aggregates Based on Waste Materials in the Production of Lightweight Polymer Concrete as a Component of Sustainable Architecture. Scientific Reports , 14, Article No. 29384. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-81290-5
Viana Rodrigues, A. and Roca Bragança, S. (2023) An Evaluation of the Increased Expansion of Clay Aggregates Fired at 1300˚C to Maximize Lightness for Non-Structural Concrete. Boletín de la Sociedad Española de Cerámica y Vidrio , 62, 56-65. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bsecv.2021.11.003
Ansyori, A., Prasetyo, A., Ojahan Rajagukguk, T., Hartawan, B. and Hendronursito, Y. (2025) Characterization of the Properties of South Lampung Clay as Lightweight Expanded Clay Aggregate. Journal of Science and Technology , 17, 33-40. https://doi.org/10.30880/jst.2025.17.01.004
Almajeed, E.A. and Turki, S.K. (2018) Synthesis of Expanded Clay Aggregate Pellets by Using Local Raw Materials. Journal of University of Babylon for Engineering Sciences , 26, 345-353. https://doi.org/10.29196/jub.v26i4.812
Cultrone, G., Sebastián, E., Elert, K., de la Torre, M.J., Cazalla, O. and Rodriguez–Navarro, C. (2004) Influence of Mineralogy and Firing Temperature on the Porosity of Bricks. Journal of the European Ceramic Society , 24, 547-564. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0955-2219(03)00249-8
Ayati, B., Ferrándiz-Mas, V., Newport, D. and Cheeseman, C. (2018) Use of Clay in the Manufacture of Lightweight Aggregate. Construction and Building Materials , 162, 124-131. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2017.12.018
Rodrigues, A.V. and Bragança, S.R. (2023) Technological Properties of a Self-Bloating Clay and Expanded-Clay Aggregate for the Production of Lightweight Concrete. Cerâmica , 69, 6-16. https://doi.org/10.1590/0366-69132023693893308
Murugesan, P., Partheeban, P., Manimuthu, S., Jegadeesan, V. and Christopher, C.G. (2023) Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis for Optimum Selection of Different Construction Bricks. Journal of Building Engineering , 71, Article 106440. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2023.106440
Serpell, R. and Zwicky, D. (2021) Low-Energy Lightweight Aggregates by Cold Bonding of Biomass Wastes: Effects of Raw Material Proportion Adjustments on Product Properties. SSRN Electronic Journal , 32 p. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3985209
Moreno-Maroto, J.M., Uceda-Rodríguez, M., Cobo-Ceacero, C.J., Cotes-Palomino, T., Martínez-García, C. and Alonso-Azcárate, J. (2020) Studying the Feasibility of a Selection of Southern European Ceramic Clays for the Production of Lightweight Aggregates. Construction and Building Materials , 237, Article 117583. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2019.117583
Fakhfakh, E., Hajjaji, W., Medhioub, M., Rocha, F., Lopezgalindo, A., Setti, M., et al . (2007) Effects of Sand Addition on Production of Lightweight Aggregates from Tunisian Smectite-Rich Clayey Rocks. Applied Clay Science , 35, 228-237. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clay.2006.09.006
Escalera, E., Antti, M.L. and Odén, M. (2012) Thermal Treatment and Phase Formation in Kaolinite and Illite Based Clays from Tropical Regions of Bolivia. IOP Conference Series : Materials Science and Engineering , 31, Article 012017. https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899x/31/1/012017
Elgamouz, A., Tijani, N., Shehadi, I., Hasan, K. and Al-Farooq Kawam, M. (2019) Characterization of the Firing Behaviour of an Illite-Kaolinite Clay Mineral and Its Potential Use as Membrane Support. Heliyon , 5, e02281. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2019.e02281
Jordán, M.M., Meseguer, S., Pardo, F. and Montero, M.A. (2020) High-Temperature Mineral Formation after Firing Clay Materials Associated with Mined Coal in Teruel (Spain). Applied Sciences , 10, Article 3114. https://doi.org/10.3390/app10093114
Wang, S., Gainey, L., Baxter, D., Wang, X., Mackinnon, I.D.R. and Xi, Y. (2021) Thermal Behaviours of Clay Mixtures during Brick Firing: A Combined Study of In - Situ XRD, TGA and Thermal Dilatometry. Construction and Building Materials , 299, Article 124319. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2021.124319
Húlan, T. and Štubňa, I. (2020) Young’s Modulus of Kaolinite-Illite Mixtures during Firing. Applied Clay Science , 190, Article 105584. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clay.2020.105584
Kaljuvee, T., Štubňa, I., Húlan, T., Uibu, M., Einard, M., Traksmaa, R., et al . (2021) Thermal Behavior of Ceramic Bodies Based on Estonian Clay from the Arumetsa Deposit with Oil Shale Ash and Clinker Dust Additives. Processes , 10, Article 46. https://doi.org/10.3390/pr10010046
Martínez, J.D., Betancourt-Parra, S., Carvajal-Marín, I. and Betancur-Vélez, M. (2018) Ceramic Light-Weight Aggregates Production from Petrochemical Wastes and Carbonates (NaHCO 3 and CaCO 3 ) as Expansion Agents. Construction and Building Materials , 180, 124-133. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.05.281
Abdel-Kader, N., EL-Raoof, F.A., Sharaf-Eldin, A., Elmasry, A., Yahya, A., Zacher, G., et al . (2024) Clays to Lightweight Aggregates: Thermochemical Modeling and Industrial Validation. Construction and Building Materials , 432, Article 136580. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2024.136580
Moreno-Maroto, J.M., Cobo-Ceacero, C.J., Martínez-Rodríguez, A.M., Conde-Sánchez, A., González-Corrochano, B., Alonso-Azcárate, J., et al . (2023) Study of the Synergistic Impact of Fe 3 O 4 , Na 2 CO 3 and Organic C on Kaolin-Based Lightweight Aggregates by a DOE (Mixture Experiments) Approach. Construction and Building Materials , 403, Article 133152. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2023.133152
Kieufack, G., Bomeni, I.Y., Ngapgue, F., Tchamba, A.B., Mbog, M.B., Kouonang, S.T., et al . (2021) Potential Use of Alluvial Clays from Monoun in Ceramics by Adding Feldspar from Batie (West-Cameroon) as a Fluxing Agent. SN Applied Sciences , 3, Article No. 856. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-021-04837-5
Chen, Y.H. (2013) Thermal Properties of Nanocrystalline Goethite, Magnetite, and Maghemite. Journal of Alloys and Compounds , 553, 194-198. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jallcom.2012.11.102
Peys, A., Van De Sande, J., Teck, P. and Snellings, R. (2021) A Metallurgical Approach toward Bloating of Canal-Dredging Sediments. Journal of Sustainable Metallurgy , 7, 1671-1685. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40831-021-00441-4