Bio-mechanically active scaffolds for tissue engineering combining hydrophilic polymeric matrix and nano-diamond fillers properties are presented and discussed in this paper. The resulting scaffolding materials revealed re-markable mechanical and biological properties to be exploited in advanced biomedical applications. The novel hybrid material is based on 2 and 5 vol-ume % of detonation nano-diamond particles in a hydrophilic poly-(hydroxyl- ethyl-methacrylate) matrix. According to its mechanical and biological properties, the nanocomposite shows a hybrid nature. The base analytical procedures for the preparation of the hybrid nanocomposites and some preliminary mechanical characteristics are presented. The proposed hybrid system has been considered for potential biomimetic, osteoconductive and osteoinductive scaffolds application in bio-mechanically active bone scaffolds for osteoblast, and stem cell differentiation and growth. These more rigid hybrid nano-composites are predicted to possess improved mechanical strength overcoming the mechanical weaknesses of traditional hydrogels clinically utilized for bone regeneration.
Montheard, J.P., Chatzopoulos, M. and Chappard, D. (1992) 2-Hydroxyethylmetha- crylate HEMA; Chemical Properties and Applications in Biomedical Fields. J Macromol Sci Macromol Rev, 32, 1-34. https://doi.org/10.1080/15321799208018377
Filmon, R., Grizon, F., Baslie, M.F. and Chappard, D. (2002) Effects of Negatively Charged Groups (Carboxymethyl) on the Calcification of Poly(2-hydroxyethyl- methacrylate). Biomaterials, 23, 3053-3059. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0142-9612(02)00069-8
Davis, P.A., Huang, S.J., Nicolais, L. and Ambrosio, L. (1991) Modified PHEMA Hydrogels. In: Szycher, M., Ed., High Performance Biomaterials, Technonic, Lancaster, PA, 343-368.
Kabra, B., Gehrke, S.H., Hwang, S.T. and Ritschel, W. (1991) Modification of the dynamic swelling behaviour of pHEMA. J Appl Polym Sci, 42, 2409-2416. https://doi.org/10.1002/app.1991.070420906
Apicella, A., Cappello, B., Del Nobile, M.A., La Rotonda, M.I., Mensitieri, G. and Nicolais, L. (1993) Poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO) and Different Molecular Weight PEO’s Blends Monolithic Devices for Drug Release. Biomaterials, 142, 83-90. https://doi.org/10.1016/0142-9612(93)90215-N
Peluso, G., Petillo, O., Anderson, J.M., Ambrosio, M., Nicolais, L., Melone, M.A.B., Eschbach, F.O. and Huang, S.J. (1997) The Differential Effects of Poly(2-hydroxye- thylmethacrylate) and Poly(2-hydroxyethylmethacrylate)/Poly(caprolactone) Polymers on Cell Proliferation and Collagen Synthesis by Human Lung Fibroblasts. J Biomed Mater Res, 34, 327-336. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1097-4636(19970305)34:3 3.0.CO;2-M
Badziag, P., Verwoerd, W.S., Ellis, W.P. and Greiner, N.R. (1990) Nanometre-Sized Diamonds Are More Stable than Graphite. Nature, 343, 244-245. https://doi.org/10.1038/343244a0
Barnard, A.S., Russo, S.P. and Snook, I.K. (2003) Structural Relaxation and Relative Stability of Nanodiamond Morphologies. Diamond Relat. Mater., 12, 1867-1872.
Barnard, A.S. and Sternberg, M. (2007) Crystallinity and Surface Electrostatics of Diamond Nanocrystals. J. Mater. Chem., 17, 4811-4819. https://doi.org/10.1039/b710189a
Viecelli, J.A., Bastea, S., Glosli, J.N. and Ree, F.H. (2001) Phase Transformations of Nanometer Size Carbon Particles in Shocked Hydrocarbons and Explosives. J. Chem. Phys., 115, 2730-2736. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.1386418
Jarre, G., Liang, Y.J., Betz, P., Lang, D. and Krueger, A. (2011) Playing the Surface Game-Diels-Alder Reactions on Diamond Nanoparticles. Chem. Commun., 47, 544-546. https://doi.org/10.1039/C0CC02931A
Danilenko, V.V. (2004) On the History of the Discovery of Nanodiamond Synthesis. Phys. Solid State, 46, 595-599. https://doi.org/10.1134/1.1711431
Greiner, N.R., Phillips, D.S., Johnson, J.D. and Volk, F. (1988) Diamonds in Detonation Soot. Nature, 333, 440-442. https://doi.org/10.1038/333440a0
Ozawa, M., et al. (2007) Preparation and Behavior of Brownish, Clear Nanodiamond Colloids. Adv. Mater., 19, 1201-1206. https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.200601452
Chang, Y.R., et al. (2008) Mass Production and Dynamic Imaging of Fluorescent Nanodiamonds. Nature Nanotech., 3, 284-288. https://doi.org/10.1038/nnano.2008.99
Lai, L. and Barnard, A.S. (2011) Modeling the Thermostability of Surface Functionalisation by Oxygen, Hydroxyl, and Water on Nanodiamonds. Nanoscale, 3, 2566-2575. https://doi.org/10.1039/c1nr10108k
Lai, L. and Barnard, A.S. (2011) Stability of Nanodiamond Surfaces Exposed to N, NH, and NH2. J. Phys. Chem. C, 115, 6218-6228. https://doi.org/10.1021/jp1111026
Osswald, S., Yushin, G., Mochalin, V., Kucheyev, S.O. and Gogotsi, Y. (2006) Control of sp2/sp3 Carbon Ratio and Surface Chemistry of Nanodiamond Powders by Selective Oxidation in Air. J. Am. Chem. Soc., 128, 11635-11642. https://doi.org/10.1021/ja063303n
Shenderova, O., et al. (2011) Surface Chemistry and Properties of Ozone-Purified Detonation Nanodiamonds. J. Phys. Chem. C, 115, 9827-9837. https://doi.org/10.1021/jp1102466
Krueger, A., Stegk, J., Liang, Y.J., Lu, L., Jarre, G. and Biotinylated (2008) Nanodiamond: Simple and Efficient Functionalization of Detonation Diamond. E Langmuir, 24, 4200-4204. https://doi.org/10.1021/la703482v
Kruger, A., Liang, Y.J., Jarre, G. and Stegk, J. (2006) Surface Functionalisation of Detonation Diamond Suitable for Biological Applications. J. Mater. Chem., 16, 2322-2328. https://doi.org/10.1039/B601325B
Schrand, A.M., et al. (2009) In Safety of Nanoparticles. In: Webster, T. J., Ed., From Manufacturing to Medical Applications, Nanostructure Science and Technology, 159-187.
Schrand, A.M., Hens, S.A.C. and Shenderova, O.A. (2009) Nanodiamond Particles: Properties and Perspectives for Bioapplications. Crit. Rev. Solid State Mater. Sci., 34, 18-74. https://doi.org/10.1080/10408430902831987
Zhang, Q., et al. (2011) Fluorescent PLLA-Nanodiamond Composites for Bone Tissue Engineering. Biomaterials, 32, 87-94. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biomaterials.2010.08.090
Yuan, Y., et al. (2010) Pulmonary Toxicity and Translocation of Nanodiamonds in Mice. Diamond Relat. Mater., 19, 291-299. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.diamond.2009.11.022
Mohan, N., Chen, C.S., Hsieh, H.H., Wu, Y.C. and Chang, H.C. (2010) In Vivo Imaging and Toxicity Assessments of Fluorescent Nanodiamonds in Caenorhabditis Elegans. Nano Lett., 10, 3692-3699. https://doi.org/10.1021/nl1021909
Aversa, R., Sorrentino, R. and Apicella, A. (2016) BioMechanically Active Ceramic-Polymeric Hybrid Scaffolds for Tissue Engineering. Advances in Biological Sciences Research, Atlantis Press, 308-318.
Aversa, R., Petrescu, F.I.T., Petrescu, R.V. and Apicella, A. Biomimetic FEA Bone Modeling for Customized Hybrid Biological Prostheses Development. American Journal of Applied Sci-ence, 13, 1060-1067.
Aversa, R. and Apicella, A. (2016) Near Critical Carbon Dioxide Sorption Induced Crystallization in PET. American Journal of Engineering and Applied Sciences, 9, 846-853. https://doi.org/10.3844/ajeassp.2016.846.853
Sorrentino, R., Apicella, D., Riccio, C., Gherlone, E.D., Zarone, F., Aversa, R.E., Garcia-Godoy, F.F., Ferrari, M. and Apicella, A. (2009) Nonlinear Visco-Elastic Finite Element Analysis of Different Porcelain Veneers Configuration. Journal of Biomedical Materials Research-Part B Applied Biomaterials, 91, 727-736. https://doi.org/10.1002/jbm.b.31449
Sorrentino, R., Aversa, R., Ferro, V., Auriemma, T., Zarone, F., Ferrari, M. and Apicella, A. (2007) Three-Dimensional Finite Element Analysis of Strain and Stress Distributions in Endodontically Treated Maxillary Central Incisors Restored with Different Post, Core and Crown Materials. Dent Mater, 23, 983-93. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dental.2006.08.006
Schiraldi, C., D’Agostino, A., Oliva, A., Flamma, F., De Rosa, A., Apicel-la, A., Aversa, R. and De Rosa, M. (2004) Development of Hybridmaterials Based on Hydroxyethylmethacrylate as Supports for Improving Cell Adhesion and Proliferation. Biomaterials, 25, 3645-3653. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biomaterials.2003.10.059
Marrelli, M., Falisi, G., Apicella, A., Apicella, D., Amantea, M., Cielo, A., Bonanome, L., Palmieri, F., Santacroce, L., Giannini, S., Di Fabrizio, E., Rastelli, C., Gargari, M., Cuda, G., Paduano, F. and Tatullo, M. (2015) Behaviour of Dental Pulp Stem Cells on Different Types of Innovative Mesoporous and Nanoporous Silicon Scaffolds with Different Functionalizations of the Surfaces. Journal of Biological Regulators and Homeostatic Agents, 9, 991-997.
Halpin, J.C. and Kardos, J.L. (1976) Halpin-Tsai Equations: A Review. Polymer Engineering and Science, 16, 44-352.
Apicella, A. and Hopfenberg, H.B. (1982) Water-Swelling Behavior of an Ethylene-Vinyl Alcohol Copoly-mer in the Presence of Sorbed Sodium Chloride. Journal of Applied Polymer Science, 27, 1139-1148. https://doi.org/10.1002/app.1982.070270404
Apicella, D., Aversa, R., Ferro, E., Ianniello, D. and Apicella, A. (2010) The Importance of Cortical Bone Orthotropicity, Maximum Stiffness Direction and Thickness on the Reliability of Mandible Numerical Models. Journal of Biomedical Materials Research-Part B Applied Biomaterials, 93, 150-163.
Apicella, D., Veltri, M., Balleri, P., Apicella, A. and Ferrari, M. (2011) Influence of Abutment Material on the Fracture Strength and Failure Modes of Abutment-Fixture Assemblies When Loaded in a Bio-Faithful Simulation. Clinical Oral Implants Research, 22, 182-188. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0501.2010.01979.x
Apicella, D., Aversa, R., Tatullo, M., Simeone, M., Sayed, S., Marrelli, M., Apicella, A. (2015) Direct Restoration Modalities of Fractured Central Max-illary Incisors: A Multi-Levels Validated Finite Elements Analysis with in Vivo Strain Measurements. Dental Materials, 31, e289-e305. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dental.2015.09.016
Aversa, R., Apicella, D., Perillo, L., Sorrentino, R., Zarone, F., Ferrari, F. and Apicella, A., (2009). Non-Linear Elastic Three-Dimensional Finite Element Analysis on the Effect of Endocrown Material Rigidity on Alveolar Bone Remodeling Process. Dental Materials, 25, 678-690. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dental.2008.10.015
Perillo, L., Sorrentino, R., Apicella, D., Quaranta, A., Gherlone, E.D., Ferrari, M., Aversa, R. and Apicella, A. (2010) Nonlinear Visco-Elastic Finite Element Analysis of Porcelain Veneers: A Submodelling Approach to Strain and Stress Distributions in Adhesive and Resin Cement. The Journal of Adhesive Dentistry, 12, 403-413.
Petrescu, F.I.T., Buzea, E., Nanut, L., Neacsa, M. and Nan, C. (2015) The Role of Antioxidants in Slowing Aging of Skin in a Human, Analele Univers. Craiova Biologie Horticultura Tehn. Prel. Prod. Agr. Ing. Med., 20, 567-574.
Schwartz-Dabney, C.L. and Dechow, P.C. (2003) Variation in Cortical Material Properties throughout the Human Dentate Mandible. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 120, 252-277. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.10121
Töyräsa, J., Lyyra-Laitinena, T., Niinimäkib, M., Lindgrenc, R., Nieminenb, M.T., Kivirantad, I. and Jurvelina, J.S. (2001) Estimation of the Young's Modulus of Articular cartilage Using an Arthroscopic Indentation Instrument and Ultrasonic Measurement of Tissue Thickness. Journal of Biomechanics, 34, 251-256. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0021-9290(00)00189-5
Frost, H.M. (1990) Structural Adaptations to Mechanical Usage (SATMU). 2. Redifining Wolff’s Law: The Bone Remodelling Problem. Anat Rec, 226, 414-22. https://doi.org/10.1002/ar.1092260403
Gramanzini, M., Gargiulo, S., Zarone, F., Megna, R., Apicella, A., Aversa, R., Salvatore, M., Mancini, M., Sorrentino, R. and Brunetti, A. (2016) Combined Microcomputed Tomography, Biomechanical and Histomorphometric Analysis of the Peri-Implant Bone: A Pilot Study in Minipig Model. Dental Materials, 32, 794-806. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dental.2016.03.025
Holley, R.H., Hopfenberg, H.B. and Stannett, V. (1970) Anomalous Transport of Hydrocarbons in Polystyrene. Polymer Eng. Sci., 10, 376-382. https://doi.org/10.1002/pen.760100612
Nicolais, L., Apicella, A. and de Notaristefano, C. (1984) Time-Temperature Superposition of n-Hexane Sorption in Polystyrene. Journal of Membrane Science, 18, 187-196. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0376-7388(00)85033-4
Aversa, R., Petrescu, F.I.T., Petrescu, RV., and Apicella, A. (2016) Biofidel FEA Modeling of Customized Hybrid Biological Hip Joint Prostheses, Part I: Biomechanical Behavior of Implanted Femur. American Journal of Biochemistry and Biotechnology, 12, 270-276. https://doi.org/10.3844/ajbbsp.2016.270.276
Aversa, R., Petrescu, F.I.T., Petrescu, R.V.V. and Apicella, A. (2016) Biomimetic Finite Element Analysis Bone Modeling for Customized Hybrid Biological Prostheses Development. American Journal of Applied Sciences, 13, 1060-1067. https://doi.org/10.3844/ajassp.2016.1060.1067
Mirsayar, M.M., Joneidi, V.A., Petrescu, R.V.V., Petrescu, F.I.T. and Berto, F. (2017) Extended MTSN Criterion for Fracture Analysis of Soda Lime Glass. Engineering Fracture Mechanics, 178, 50-59. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engfracmech.2017.04.018
Aversa, R., Petrescu, F.I.T., Petrescu, R.V.V. and Apicella, A. (2016) Flexible Stem Trabecular Prostheses. American Journal of Engineering and Applied Sciences, 9, 1213-1221. https://doi.org/10.3844/ajeassp.2016.1213.1221
Raffaella, A., Petrescu, R.V.V., Antonio, A. and Petrescu, F.I.T. (2016) Physiologic Human Fluids and Swelling Behavior of Hydrophilic Biocompatible Hybrid Ceramo-Polymeric Materials. American Journal of Engineering and Applied Sciences, 9, 962-972. https://doi.org/10.3844/ajeassp.2016.962.972