Coconut water has several uses that are beneficial to humans, mainly because of its nutritional and medicinal properties. In this study coconut water samples were collected from the fresh mature coconuts and from packaged processed coconut water to measure the radon concentrations in them. The results were used to estimate the annual effective radiation dose to the general adult population from ingestion of coconut water. The samples were analyzed for radon concentrations using the Durridge RAD-7 radon detector. The results of measured radon concentrations for the fresh mature coconut were ranged from 381.10 Bq·m -3 to 1716.80 Bq·m -3 . The results for packaged processed coconut samples ranged from 68.08 Bq·m -3 to 556.85 Bq·m -3 . The mean values for the samples were (1081.40 and 222.78) Bq·m -3 for the fresh and processed samples, respectively. The estimated mean annual effective doses (AED) due to ingestion of coconut water were 0.41 and 0.08 μSv·y -1 for fresh and processed samples, respectively. These values are significantly lower than the safe limits recommended by the World Health Organization and the European Commission of 0.1 mSv·y -1 and the maximum contamination level (MCL) of 11,000 Bq·m -3 by the United States Environmental Protection Agency and so do not constitute a risk to consumers of coconut water.
NRC (1999) National Research Council 1999. Risk Assessment of Radon in Drinking Water. The National Academies Press, Washington DC.
Paquet, F., Bailey, M.R., Leggett, R.W., Lipsztein, J., Marsh, J., Fell, T.P., Harrison, J.D., et al. (2017) ICRP Publication 137: Occupational Intakes of Radionuclides: Part 3. Annals of the ICRP, 46, 1-486. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146645317734963
Eidy, M. and Tishkowski, K. (2021) Radon Toxicity. StatPearls Publishing, Treasure Island. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK562321
CDC (2021) An Update on Cancer Deaths in the United States. US Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Division of Cancer Prevention and Control, Atlanta.
NRC (1988) National Research Council, Committee on the Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiation. Health Effects on Exposure to Low Levels of Radon. BEIR VI. National Academy Press, Washington DC.
Frumkin, H. and Samet, J.M. (2001) Radon. CA: A Cancer Journal for Clinicians, 51, 337-344. https://doi.org/10.3322/canjclin.51.6.337
Lehrer, S., Rheinstein, P.H. and Rosenzweig, K.E. (2017) Association of Radon Background and Total Background Ionizing Radiation with Alzheimer’s Disease Deaths in US States. Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, 59, 737-741. https://doi.org/10.3233/JAD-170308
WHO (2011) Guidelines for Drinking-Water Quality. Fourth Edition. WHO Chronicle, 38, 104-108.
Al-Kharouf, S.J., Al-Hamarneh, I.F. and Dababneh, M. (2008) Natural Radioactivity, Dose Assessment and Uranium Uptake by Agricultural Crops at Khan Al-Zabeeb, Jordan. Journal of Environmental Radioactivity, 99, 1192-1199. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvrad.2008.02.001
Oufni, L., Manaut, N., Taj, S. and Manaut, B. (2013) Determination of Radon and Thoron Concentrations in Different Parts of Some Plants Used in Traditional Medicine Using Nuclear Track Detectors. American Journal of Environmental Protection, 1, 34-40. https://doi.org/10.12691/env-1-2-4
Naeem, H.S., Algareb, R.S. and Hussein, H.A. (2020) Herbal Plants Show Another Evidence of Radon Contamination in Al-Muthanna Province. AIP Conference Proceedings, 2292, Article ID: 030009. https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0030506
Lewis, B.G. and MacDonell, M.M. (1990) Release of Radon-222 by Vascular Plants: Effect of Transpiration and Leaf Area. Journal of Environmental Quality, 19, 93-97. https://doi.org/10.2134/jeq1990.00472425001900010012x
Kendall, G.M. and Smith, T.J. (2002) Doses to Organs and Tissues from Radon and Its Decay Products. Journal of Radiological Protection, 22, 389. https://doi.org/10.1088/0952-4746/22/4/304
Das, B. (2021) Radon Induced Health Effects: A Survey Report. Indian Journal of Science and Technology, 14, 481-507. https://doi.org/10.17485/IJST/v14i5.1049
Alavanja, M.C. (2002) Biologic Damage Resulting from Exposure to Tobacco Smoke and from Radon: Implication for Preventive Interventions. Oncogene, 21, 7365-7375. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.onc.1205798
Magi, A. and Lindell, B. (2013) 222Rn in Milk. Radioecological Concentration Processes: Proceedings of an International Symposium, Stockholm, 25-29 April 1966, 337. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-012122-2.50042-6
Cothern, C.R. (1987) Estimating the Health Risks of Radon in Drinking Water. Journal—American Water Works Association, 79, 153-158. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1551-8833.1987.tb02827.x
Jobbágy, V., Altzitzoglou, T., Malo, P., Tanner, V. and Hult, M. (2017) A Brief Overview on Radon Measurements in Drinking Water. Journal of Environmental Radioactivity, 173, 18-24. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvrad.2016.09.019
Ramola, R.C., Rawat, R.B.S., Kandri, M.S. and Choubey, V.M. (1997) Measurement of Radon in Drinking Water and Indoor Air. Radiation Protection Dosimetry, 74, 103-106. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.rpd.a032174
Duggal, V., Sharma, S. and Mehra, R. (2020) Risk Assessment of Radon in Drinking Water in Khetri Copper Belt of Rajasthan, India. Chemosphere, 239, Article ID: 124782. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2019.124782
Ajibola, T.B., Orosun, M.M., Lawal, W.A., Akinyose, F.C. and Salawu, N.B. (2021) Assessment of Annual Effective Dose Associated with Radon in Drinking Water from Gold and Bismuth Mining Area of Edu, Kwara, North-Central Nigeria. Pollution, 7, 231-240.
Abojassim, A.A., Al-Gazaly, H.H., Kadhim, S.H. and Guida, M. (2015) Natural Radioactivity and Radon Activity Concentrations in Canned Milk Samples in Iraq. In: Mastorakis, N.E., Ed., Advances in Environmental and Agricultural Science, WSEAS Press, Athens, 354-362.
Ali, E.S., Mohammed, S.F., Mohammed, C.N. and Mahmoud, Z.S. (2020) Measurement of Radon Radiation Concentration in Imported and Local Powdered Milk Using Nuclear Track Detector CR-39. Journal of Physics: Conference Series, 1530, Article ID: 012133. https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/1530/1/012133
Hady, H.N., Abojassim, A.A. and Mohammed, Z.B. (2016) Study of Radon Levels in Fruits Samples Using LR-115 Type II Detector. Journal of Environmental Science and Technology, 9, 446-451. https://doi.org/10.3923/jest.2016.446.451
Al-Hamidawi, A.A.A., Hady, H.N. and Mohammed, Z.B. (2016) 222Rn in the Selected Samples of Fruits in Local Markets, Iraq. Abstract of Applied Sciences and Engineering, 12, 1-18.
Battawy, A.A., Aziz, A.A. and Ali, H.S. (2018) Radon Concentration Measurement in an Imported Tea Using Nuclear Track Detector CN-85. Tikrit Journal of Pure Science, 21, 68-70.
Adeniji, A.E., Alatise, O.O. and Nwanya, A.C. (2013) Radionuclide Concentrations in Some Fruit Juices Produced and Consumed in Lagos, Nigeria. American Journal of Environmental Protection, 2, 37-41. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajep.20130202.11
Al-Naggar, T.I. and Shabaan, D.H. (2020) Radon in Foods. In: Recent Techniques and Applications in Ionizing Radiation Research, IntechOpen, London, 57. https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.93123
Ahmed, A.H. and Samad, A.I. (2014) Measurement of Radioactivity Levels in Daily Intake Foods of Erbil City Inhabitants. Journal of Zankoy Sulaimani Part A, 16, 111-121. https://doi.org/10.17656/jzs.10351
Hussein, H.A., Salah Naeem, H. and Algareb, R.S. (2020) The Estimation of Radon Gas Measurement in Grains in Samawah City Markets Using CRM-1029. Solid State Technology, 63, 7164-7172.
Campbell-Falck, D., Thomas, T., Falck, T.M., Tutuo, N. and Clem, K. (2000) The Intravenous Use of Coconut Water. The American Journal of Emergency Medicine, 18, 108-111. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0735-6757(00)90062-7
Prado, F.C., Lindner, J.D.D., Inaba, J., Thomaz-Soccol, V., Brar, S.K. and Soccol, C.R. (2015) Development and Evaluation of a Fermented Coconut Water Beverage with Potential Health Benefits. Journal of Functional Foods, 12, 489-497. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jff.2014.12.020
Chang, C.L. and Wu, R.T. (2011) Quantification of (+)-catechin and (-)-epicatechin in Coconut Water by LC-MS. Food Chemistry, 126, 710-717. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2010.11.034
Duggal, P. (2013) Coconut: The Life Tree. Guident, 6, 60-62.
Johnkennedy, N., Ndubueze, E.H., Augustine, I., Chioma, D. and Okey, E.C. (2014) Coconut Water Consumption and Its Effect on Sex Hormone Concentrations. Journal of Krishna Institute of Medical Sciences (JKIMSU), 3, 107-110.
Hs, G., Tekade, A.P. and Gullapalli, N.H. (2013) Effect of Supplementation of Tender Coconut Water on Blood Pressure of Primary Hypertensive Subjects. International Journal of Medical Research & Health Sciences, 2, 172-176. https://doi.org/10.5958/j.2319-5886.2.2.024
Airaodion, A.I., Ekenjoku, J.A., Megwas, A.U., Ngwogu, K.O. and Ngwogu, A.C. (2019) Antihypertensive Potential of Coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) Water in Wistar Rats. Asian Journal of Research in Cardiovascular Diseases, 1-8.
Prades, A., Salum, U.N. and Pioch, D. (2016) New Era for the Coconut Sector. What Prospects for Research? OCL—Oilseeds & Fats, Crops and Lipids, 23, D607. https://doi.org/10.1051/ocl/2016048
Jamaica Observer (2021) Limited, Jamaica Observer. Gov’t Seeks Public-Private Partnerships to Boost Coconut Production. Jamaica Observer, May 14, 2021. https://www.jamaicaobserver.com/latestnews/Govt_seeks_public-private_partnerships_to_boost_coconut_production?profile=6846
S. Edmonson (Private Communication).
Durridge (2021) RAD7 Radon Detector. Owner’s Manual & RAD7 RAD-H2O Radon in Water Accessory. Owner’s Manual, Bedford. https://www.durridge.com
Oudah, O.N. and Al-Hamzawi, A.A. (2020) Measurement of Radon Concentrations in Mineral Water of Iraqi Local Markets Using RAD7 Technique. Nature Environment and Pollution Technology, 19, 1973-1976. https://doi.org/10.46488/NEPT.2020.v19i05.022
Bourai, A.A., Aswal, S., Dangwal, A., et al. (2013) Measurements of Radon Flux and Soil-Gas Radon Concentration along the Main Central Thrust, Garhwal Himalaya, Using SRM and RAD7 Detectors. Acta Geophysica, 61, 950-957. https://doi.org/10.2478/s11600-013-0132-2
Kluge, T., Ilmberger, J., Von Rohden, C. and Aeschbach-Hertig, W. (2007) Tracing and Quantifying Groundwater Inflow into Lakes Using Radon-222. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences Discussions, 4, 1519-1548. https://doi.org/10.5194/hessd-4-1519-2007
Ghernaout, D. (2019) Aeration Process for Removing Radon from Drinking Water—A Review. Applied Engineering, 3, 32.
Akar Tarim, U., Gurler, O.R.H.A.N., Akkaya, G., Kilic, N., Yalcin, S., Kaynak, G. and Gundogdu, O. (2012) Evaluation of Radon Concentration in Well and Tap Waters in Bursa, Turkey. Radiation Protection Dosimetry, 150, 207-212. https://doi.org/10.1093/rpd/ncr394
Cho, B.W., Hwang, J.H., Lee, B.D., Oh, Y.H. and Choo, C.O. (2020) Radon Concentrations in Raw Water and Treated Water Used for Bottled Water in South Korea. Sustainability, 12, 5313. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12135313
European Commission (2013) Council Directive 2013/51/Euratom of 22 October 2013 Laying Down Requirements for the Protection of the Health of the General Public with Regard to Radioactive Substances in Water Intended for Human Consumption. Official Journal of the European Union, 296, 12-21.
Risica, S. and Grande, S. (2000) Council Directive 98/83/EC on the Quality of Water Intended for Human Consumption: Calculation of Derived Activity Concentrations. Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Rome.
Diab, H.M. (2017) Measurement of Radon Levels in Water in Arar City, Saudi Arabia. Romanian Journal of Biophysics, 27, 129-136.
Somlai, K., Tokonami, S., Ishikawa, T., et al. (2007) 222Rn Concentrations of Water in the Balaton Highland and in the Southern Part of Hungary, and the Assessment of the Resulting Dose. Radiation Measurements, 42, 491-495. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.radmeas.2006.11.005
UNSCEAR (2017) United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation. Sources, Effects and Risks of Ionizing Radiation, United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation (UNSCEAR) 2016 Report: Report to the General Assembly, with Scientific Annexes. United Nations.
Fakhri, Y., Mahvi, A.H., Langarizadeh, et al. (2016) Effective Dose of Radon 222 Bottled Water in Different Age Groups Humans: Bandar Abbas City, Iran. Global Journal of Health Science, 8, 64. https://doi.org/10.5539/gjhs.v8n2p64
El-Araby, E.H., Soliman, H.A. and Abo-Elmagd, M. (2019) Measurement of Radon Levels in Water and the Associated Health Hazards in Jazan, Saudi Arabia. Journal of Radiation Research and Applied Sciences, 12, 31-36. https://doi.org/10.1080/16878507.2019.1594134
Tayyeb, Z.A., Kinsara, A.R. and Farid, S.M. (1998) A Study on the Radon Concentrations in Water in Jeddah (Saudi Arabia) and the Associated Health Effects. Journal of Environmental Radioactivity, 38, 97-104. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0265-931X(97)00014-3
Sola, P., Srisuksawad, K., Loaharojanaphand, S., O-Manee, A., Permnamtip, V., Issarapan, P. and Thummagarun, L. (2013) Radon Concentration in Air, Hot Spring Water, and Bottled Mineral Water in One Hot Spring Area in Thailand. Journal of Radioanalytical and Nuclear Chemistry, 297, 183-187. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10967-012-2359-9
Kochowska, E., Mazur, J., Kozak, K. and Janik, M. (2004) Radon in Well Waters in the Kraków Area. Isotopes in Environmental and Health Studies, 40, 207-212. https://doi.org/10.1080/10256010410001678044
Yousef, H.A. (2018) Assessment of the Annual Effective Dose of Bottled Mineral Waters Using Closed Can Technique. Journal of Advances in Physics, 14, 5696-5707. https://doi.org/10.24297/jap.v14i3.7768
Komosa, A., Madej, E. and Piekarz, M. (2008) Determination of a Supported Radon Activity Concentration in Bottled Mineral Waters. Chemia Analityczna (Warsaw), 53, 835-843.
Seoud, M.S. (2017) Measurement of Radon-222 Concentration in Bottled Natural Mineral Drinking Water in Kuwait Using the Nuclear Track Detector (CR-39). International Journal of Physics, 5, 201-207.
Amrani, D. (2002) Natural Radioactivity in Algerian Bottled Mineral Waters. Journal of Radioanalytical and Nuclear Chemistry, 252, 597-600. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1015883610854