Use and Performance of the Force Account Method in Road Construction Projects: Evidence from Nairobi City County

Abstract

This study investigated the use and performance of the force account method (FAM) in road construction projects in Nairobi City County, Kenya. The problem motivating the research was the absence of empirical evidence on the extent of FAM adoption in Kenya’s urban road sector and its actual performance outcomes, despite its growing prominence in public works. A descriptive cross-sectional design was applied, using both primary data collected through semi-structured questionnaires and secondary data from the Ministry of Roads and Transport reports. The target population comprised project managers, engineers, and procurement staff, with a census approach ensuring full coverage. The findings revealed that FAM accounted for 20.63% of road projects compared to 55.56% implemented through open tender. Projects delivered through FAM were significantly more efficient, averaging KES 107.24 million and 18 months, compared to KES 797.98 million and 48 months for open tender. Respondents reported that FAM projects largely complied with technical and safety standards, but challenges persisted in the form of cost overruns (mean maximum KES 71.8 million), inadequate supervision (78.3%), and managerial inefficiencies. Notably, defect rates were lowest in FAM projects (mean = 2.616), demonstrating better quality consistency relative to other methods. The study shows that FAM delivers measurable cost and time savings but faces persistent oversight and quality challenges. Policy recommendations include enhancing supervisory capacity, strengthening financial accountability, and expanding training for technical staff. Future research should assess the long-term sustainability of FAM projects and explore cross-county comparisons to evaluate broader applicability in Kenya’s infrastructure sector.