Tanzania is considered a country with the largest number of African lions ( Panthera leo ). However, the continued absence of ecological population estimates and understanding of the associated factors influencing lion distribution hinders the development of conservation planning. This is particularly true in the Ruaha-Rungwa landscape, where it was estimated that more than 10% of the global lion population currently resides. By using a call-back survey method, we aimed to provide population estimates (population size and density) of African lions in the Ruaha National Park, between wet (March 2019) and dry (October 2019) seasons. We also assessed the key factors that influenced the distribution of the observed lions towards call-back stations. Ferreira & Funston’s (2010) formula was used to calculate population size and in turn used to estimate density in the sampled area, while the Generalized Linear Model (GLMM) with zero-inflated Poisson error distribution was used to determine factors that influence the distribution of the observed lions to call-back stations. The population size we calculated for the sampled area of 3137.2 km 2 revealed 286 lions (95% CI, 236 - 335) during the wet season, and 196 lions (95% CI, 192 - 200) during the dry season. The density of lions was 9.1/100 km 2 during the wet season, and 6.3/100 km 2 during the dry season. Distance to water source had a significant negative effect on the distribution of the observed lions to the call-back stations, while habitat had a marginal effect. Our findings show that, although lion population estimates were larger during the wet season than the dry season, the season had no effect on the distribution of the observed lions to call-back stations. We suggest that the proximity to water sources is important in study design. Further, we suggest that density and population size are useful indices in identifying conservation area priorities and lion coexistence strategies.
Bauer, H., Chapron, G., Nowell, K., Henschel, P., Funston, P., Hunter, L.T.B. and Packer, C. (2015) Lion (Panthera leo) Populations Are Declining Rapidly across Africa, Except in Intensively Managed Areas. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 112, 14894-14899. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1500664112
Cardillo, M., Purvis, A., Sechrest, W., Gittleman, J.L., Bielby, J. and Mace, G.M. (2004) Human Population Density and Extinction Risk in the World’s Carnivores. PLoS Biology, 2, e197. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.0020197
Henschel, P., Azani, D., Burton, C., Malanda, G.U.Y., Saidu, Y., Sam, M. and Hunter, L. (2010) Lion Status Updates from Five Range Countries in West and Central Africa. Cat News, 52, 34-39.
Riggio, J.S. and Pimm, S.L. (2011) The African Lion (Panthera leo leo): A Continent-Wide Species Distribution Study and Population Analysis. Master of Environmental Management Thesis, Duke University, Durham.
Manley, P.N., Zielinski, W.J., Schlesinger, M.D. and Mori, S.R. (2010) Evaluation of a Multiple-Species Approach to Monitoring Species at the Ecoregional Scale. Ecological Applications, 14, 296-310. https://doi.org/10.1890/02-5249
Wilson, G.J. and Delahay, R.J. (2001) A Review of Methods to Estimate the Abundance of Terrestrial Carnivores Using Field Signs and Observation. Wildlife Research, 28, 151-164. https://doi.org/10.1071/WR00033
Yoccoz, N.G., Nichols, J.D. and Boulinier, T. (2001) Monitoring of Biological Diversity in Space and Time. Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 16, 446-453. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0169-5347(01)02205-4
Loveridge, A.J., Searle, A.W., Murindagomo, F. and Macdonald, D.W. (2007) The Impact of Sport-Hunting on the Population Dynamics of an African Lion Population in a Protected Area. Biological Conservation, 134, 548-558. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2006.09.010
Rosenblatt, E., Becker, M.S., Creel, S., Droge, E., Mweetwa, T., Schuette, P.A. and Mwape, H. (2014) Detecting Declines of Apex Carnivores and Evaluating Their Causes: An Example with Zambian Lions. Biological Conservation, 180, 176-186. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2014.10.006
Buckland, S.T., Summers, R.W., Borchers, D.L. and Thomas, L. (2006) Point Transect Sampling with Traps or Lures. Journal of Applied Ecology, 43, 377-384. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2664.2006.01135.x
Midlane, N., Justin O’Riain, M., Balme, G.A. and Hunter, L.T. (2015) To Track or to Call: Comparing Methods for Estimating Population Abundance of African Lions Panthera leo in Kafue National Park. Biodiversity and Conservation, 24, 1311-1327. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-015-0858-z
Ogutu, J.O. and Dublin, H.T. (1998) The Response of Lions and Spotted Hyenas to Sound Playbacks Is a Technique for Estimating Population Size. African Journal of Ecology, 36, 83-95. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2028.1998.113-89113.x
Mills, M.G.L., Juritz, J.M. and Zucchini, W. (2001) Estimating the Size of Spotted Hyena (Crocuta crocuta) Populations through Playback Recordings Allows for Non-Response. Animal Conservation, 4, 335-343. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1367943001001391
Giannatos, G., Marinos, Y., Maragou, P. and Catsadorakis, G. (2005) The Status of the Golden Jackal (Canis aureus L.) in Greece. Belgian Journal of Zoology, 135, 145-149. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10344-013-0765-0
Whitman, K. (2006) Modeling, Monitoring & the Sustainable Use of Lion Populations in Tanzania.
Ferreira, S.M. and Funston, P.J. (2010) Estimating Lion Population Variables: Prey and Disease Effects in Kruger National Park, South Africa. Wildlife Research, 37, 194-206. https://doi.org/10.1071/WR09030
Hansen, S.J.K. (2015) Pairing Call-Response Surveys and Distance Sampling for a Mammalian Carnivore. Journal of Wildlife Management, 79, 662-671. https://doi.org/10.1002/jwmg.865
Winterbach, C.W., Ferreira, S.M., Funston, P.J. and Somers, M.J. (2016) Simplified Large African Carnivore Density Estimators from Track Indices. PeerJ, 4, e2662. https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.2662
Henschel, P., Coad, L., Burton, C., Chataigner, B., Dunn, A., MacDonald, D. and Hunter, L.T.B. (2014) The Lion in West Africa Is Critically Endangered. PLOS ONE, 9, e83500. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0083500
Belant, J.L., Bled, F., Wilton, C.M., Fyumagwa, R., Mwampeta, S.B. and Beyer, D.E. (2016) Estimating Lion Abundance Using N-Mixture Models for Social Species. Scientific Reports, 6, Article No. 35920. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep35920
Groom, R.J., Funston, P.J. and Mandisodza, R. (2014) Surveys of Lions Panthera leo in Protected Areas in Zimbabwe Yield Disturbing Results: What Is Driving the Population Collapse? Oryx, 48, 385-393. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0030605312001457
Macdonald, D.W. and Loveridge, A.J. (2010) Biology and Conservation of Wild Felids.
Dickman, A.J. (2008) Key Determinants of Conflict between People and Wildlife, Particularly Large Carnivores, around Ruaha National Park, Tanzania. Ph.D. Diss., University of London, London.
Abade, L., Macdonald, D.W. and Dickman, A.J. (2014) Assessing the Relative Importance of Landscape and Husbandry Factors in Determining Large Carnivore Depredation Risk in Tanzania’s Ruaha Landscape. Biological Conservation, 180, 241-248. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2014.10.005
Olson, D.M. and Dinerstein, E. (1998) The Global 200: A Representation Approach to Conserving the Earth’s Most Biologically Valuable Ecoregions. Conservation Biology, 12, 502-515. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1523-1739.1998.012003502.x
Walsh, M. (2000) The Development of Community Wildlife Management in Tanzania. Conference African Wildlife Management in the New Millennium, Mweka, 13-15 December 2000, 13-15.
Kabuga, S.B. (2018) Tourism and Poverty Reduction in “Southern Circuits” of Tanzania: Experiences of Communities at the Gateway of Ruaha National Park. Innsbrucker Bericht, 19, 153-173.
Cozzi, G., Broekhuis, F., McNutt, J.W. and Schmid, B. (2013) Density and Habitat Use of Lions and Spotted Hyenas in Northern Botswana and the Influence of Survey and Ecological Variables on Call-In Survey Estimation. Biodiversity and Conservation, 22, 2937-2956. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-013-0564-7
Hayward, M.W. and Slotow, R. (2009) Temporal Partitioning of Activity in Large African Carnivores: Tests of Multiple Hypotheses. South African Journal of Wildlife Research, 39, 109-125. https://doi.org/10.3957/056.039.0207
R Core Team (2020) R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna. https://www.R-project.org
Kiffner, C., Meyer, B., Mühlenberg, M. and Waltert, M. (2009) Plenty of Prey, Few Predators: What Limits Lions Panthera leo in Katavi National Park, Western Tanzania? Oryx, 43, 52-59. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0030605307002335
Mosser, A., Fryxell, J.M., Eberly, L. and Packer, C. (2009) Serengeti Real Estate: Density vs. Fitness-Based Indicators of Lion Habitat Quality. Ecology Letters, 12, 1050-1060. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1461-0248.2009.01359.x
Abade, L., Macdonald, D.W. and Dickman, A.J. (2014) Using Landscape and Bioclimatic Features to Predict the Distribution of Lions, Leopards, and Spotted Hyenas in Tanzania’s Ruaha Landscape. PLOS ONE, 9, e96261. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0096261
Crosmary, W.G., Ikanda, D., Ligate, F.A., Sandini, P., Mkasanga, I., Mkuburo, L. and Chardonnet, P. (2018) Lion Densities in SelousSelous Game Reserve, Tanzania. African Journal of Wildlife Research, 48, Article ID: 014001. https://doi.org/10.3957/056.048.014001
Hughes, C., Steenweg, R.J., Vander Vennen, L.M., Melnycky, N.A., Fullerton, L., Witiw, J.T. and Morehouse, A. (2021) Working Together for Grizzly Bears: A Collaborative Approach to Estimate Population Abundance in Northwest Alberta, Canada. Frontiers in Conservation Science, 2, Article No. 64. https://doi.org/10.3389/fcosc.2021.719044
Hopcraft, J.G.C., Sinclair, A.R.E. and Packer, C. (2005) Planning for Success: Serengeti Lions Seek Prey Accessibility Rather than Abundance. Journal of Animal Ecology, 74, 559-566. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2656.2005.00955.x