This paper compares and contrasts the leadership styles learned from the worldviews of Maimonides’s and Spinoza’s thinking. The paper seeks to unearth the similarities and differences between these two models for the purpose of proposing suitable leadership styles for different environmental conditions and desired relationships between leaders and followers, thus, ensuring a connection between the leadership style and the nature of its audience. The paper claims that Maimonides’s concept is similar to that of the flexible leadership style, while Spinoza’s concept is similar to an affective leadership style. The similarities between these models are that they can operate in a complex, challenging environment through the use of ideal communication, persuasion, awareness, and activism. Both models believe in the political structure as necessary for human life and also where one needs a political framework to fulfil his/her destiny. Further, these models acknowledge that an in dividual is part of society and is shaped by it. Therefore, the individual is compelled to give of him/herself to society. However, the paper outlines several differences between these two models of leadership styles. The basis of these divergent views lies in the conception of God and how the two worldviews view the functions of prophets and prophecy. The differences also emanate from how each worldview views issues to do with society and human ideals. For example, Maimonides’s flexible leadership is characterized by a hierarchical mode of leadership headed by a single leader, and it de mands obedience and does not put emphasis on the enjoyment of things. These cha racteristics are reflected by the way God rules the earth as the exclusive sovereign from the top and embody the hierarchical order which requires obedience to the commandments of religion, including obedience in beliefs and opinions. On the contrary, Spinoza’s affective leadership is characterized by non-hierarchical leadership, obedience is not a requirement, and emphasis is placed on the enjoyment by both leader s and followers. There is also no difference between God and nature; in fact, the fundamental concep tions of monotheistic religions are criticized. The paper further outlines the benefits and limitations of each leadership model and concludes by recommending that the research may provide a basis by which to match an audience, with its unique conceptual or operational structure, to the appropriate leadership style.
KeywordsLeadershipHierarchyObedienceEnjoyment
Arbib, D. (2021). Spinoza and Scripture. In Y. Y. Melamed (Ed.), A Companion to Spinoza (pp. 449-461). Wiley Blackwell. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119538349.ch42
Baron, L., Rouleau, V., Grégoire, S., & Baron, C. (2018). Mindfulness and Leadership Flexibility. The Journal of Management Development, 37, 165-177.
Dahlbeck, J. (2021). Spinoza on the Teaching of Doctrines: Towards a Positive Account of Indoctrination. Theory and Research in Education, 19, 78-99. https://doi.org/10.1177/1477878521996235
Dascalu, R. (2017). Imago and Imitatio: Perfection of the Individual and Society in Maimonides’ Theory of Religious Law. In N. Doe, P. Babie, & V. I. Savić (Eds.), Law, Religion and Love (pp. 266-288). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315543734-14
Davies, D. (2011). Method and Metaphysics in Maimonides’ Guide for the Perplexed. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199768738.001.0001
Eisenberg, P. D. (2019). “Is Spinoza an Ethical Naturalist? 1.” In S. Hessing (Ed.), Speculum Spinozanum, 1677-1977 (pp. 145-164). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429317958-8
Fagenblat, M. (2020). 4. Ethical Negative Theology. In M. Fagenblat (Ed.), A Covenant of Creatures (pp. 111-139). Stanford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1515/9780804774680-006
Gandolfi, F., & Stone, S. (2018). Leadership, Leadership Styles, and Servant Leadership. Journal of Management Research, 18, 261-269.
Gatens, M., Steinberg, J., Armstrong, A., James, S., & Saar, M. (2021). Spinoza: Thoughts on Hope in Our Political Present. Contemporary Political Theory, 20, 200-231. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41296-020-00406-4
Gilead, A. (2021). Why Spinoza Was Not a Panentheist. Philosophia, 49, 2041-2051. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11406-021-00378-8
Grafton, A. (2020). Baruch Spinoza Reads the Bible. In A. Grafton (Ed.), Inky Fingers (pp. 232-253). Harvard University Press. https://doi.org/10.4159/9780674245679-010
Green, K. (2019). Spinoza and the “Outsider” Prophet. Textual Practice, 33, 859-877. https://doi.org/10.1080/0950236X.2019.1581689
Grossman, E. (2020). Spinoza’s Critique of Maimonides in the Context of Dutch Hebraism. Jewish Studies Quarterly, 27, 36-57. https://doi.org/10.1628/jsq-2020-0004
Halbertal, M. (2013). Maimonides: Life and Thought. Princeton University Press.
MFL
SAL Maimonides
Spinoza
Prophet
Prophecy
Society
Halkin, A. S., & Hartman, D. (1993). Epistles of Maimonides: Crisis and Leadership. Jewish Publication Society.
Hancock, C. (2021). In Search of the Good Life: Through the Eyes of Aristotle, Maimonides, and Aquinas. International Philosophical Quarterly, 61, 123-126. https://doi.org/10.5840/ipq2021611169
Heemsbergen, B. (2006). The Leader’s Brain. Trafford Publishing.
Hoch, L., & Bentolila, D. (2021). Maimonides: Flexible Leadership. Open Journal of Leadership, 10, 27-38. https://doi.org/10.4236/ojl.2021.101002
Hurtado, P. S., & Mukherji, A. (2015). Developing a Construct of the Leader’s Cognitive Flexibility: An Interdisciplinary Approach. Journal of Competitiveness Studies, 23, 3-12.
Idel, M. (2008). Leadership and Charisma: Maimonides, Nahmanides and Abraham Abulafia. Journal for the Study of Sephardic and Mizrahi Jewry, 1, 2-34.
Jia, X., Chen, J., Mei, L., & Wu, Q. (2018). How Leadership Matters in Organizational Innovation: A Perspective of Openness. Management Decision, 56, 6-25. https://doi.org/10.1108/MD-04-2017-0415
Jones, S., & Nieto, C. A. (2015). Developing People for Strategic Leadership. Effective Executive, 18, 19-24.
Kaiser, R. B., & Overfield, D. V. (2010). Assessing Flexible Leadership as a Mastery of Opposites. Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 62, 105-118. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0019987
Klein, J. R. (2019). Materializing Spinoza’s Account of Human Freedom. In N. Naaman-Zauderer (Ed.), Freedom, Action, and Motivation in Spinoza’s Ethics (pp. 152-173). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429350962-8
Kreisel, H. (2012). Maimonides’ Political Thought: Studies in Ethics, Law, and the Human Ideal. SUNY Press.
Kreisel, H. (2018). 1. Maimonides’ God: The God of Abraham or the God of Aristotle? In H. Kreisel (Ed.), Judaism as Philosophy (pp. 3-18). Academic Studies Press. https://doi.org/10.1515/9781618117892-002
Krop, H., & Arab, P. T. (2021). Spinoza’s Theological-Political Treatise (1670-2020). Commemorating a Long-Forgotten Masterpiece. Philosophies, 6, Article No. 67. https://doi.org/10.3390/philosophies6030067
Landin, J. (2017). Keys to Flexible Leadership. Strategic Finance, 99, 23-24.
LeBuffe, M. (2018). Spinoza on Reason. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190845803.001.0001
Lemler, D. (2018). The Sceptical Exegesis of Maimonides and His Followers. In R. Haliva (Ed.), Scepticism and Anti-Scepticism in Medieval Jewish Philosophy and Thought (pp. 107-129). De Gruyter. https://doi.org/10.1515/9783110553321-007
Lloyd, G. (2018). Spinoza and the Meaning of Life. In S. Leach, & J. Tartaglia (Eds.), The Meaning of Life and the Great Philosophers (pp. 135-141). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315385945-18
Mahmoodi, M. (2018). Maimonides and His Approach to Anthropomorphic Verses of the Bible. Essays in Philosophy and Kalam, 50, 91-108.
Maimonides, M. (1983). The Book of Knowledge: From the Mishneh Torah of Maimonides. KTAV Publishing House, Inc.
Maimonides, M. (1910). The Guide for the Perplexed. London: Routledge.
Maimonides, M. (1912). Eight Chapters of Maimonides on Ethics. Columbia University Press.
Mander, W. (2012). Pantheism. In E. Zalta (Ed.), Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Stanford University.
Melamed, Y. (2018). Cohen, Spinoza, and the Nature of Pantheism. Jewish Studies Quarterly, 25, 171-180. https://doi.org/10.1628/jsq-2018-0007
Munro, I., & Thanem, T. (2018). The Ethics of Affective Leadership: Organizing Good Encounters without Leaders. Business Ethics Quarterly, 28, 51-69.
Munro, I., & Thanem, T. (2020). Care without Leaders: The Collective Powers of Affective Leadership. In L. Tomkins (Ed.), Paradox and Power in Caring Leadership (199-210). Edward Elgar Publishing. https://doi.org/10.4337/9781788975506.00028
Naaman-Zauderer, N. (2019). Spinoza on Human Freedoms and the Eternity of the Mind. In N. Naaman-Zauderer (Ed.), Freedom, Action, and Motivation in Spinoza’s Ethics (pp. 198-221). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429350962-10
Newlands, S. (2010). The Harmony of Spinoza and Leibniz. Philosophy and Phenomenological Research, 81, 64-104. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1933-1592.2010.00354.x
Novicevic, M. M., Williams, L. A., Abraham, D. R., Gibson, M. C., Smothers, J., & Crawford, A. L. (2011). Principles of Outstanding Leadership: Dale Carnegie’s Folk Epistemology. Journal of Applied Management and Entrepreneurship, 16, 4-22.
Pillay, S. S. (2010). Your Brain and Business: The Neuroscience of Great Leaders. Pearson FT Press.
Popejoy, M. (2019). Pantheism in Spinoza, Hegel, and Contemporary Philosophy of Religion. Doctoral Dissertation, Purdue University Graduate School.
Přibáň, J. (2018). Constitutional Imaginaries and Legitimation: On Potentia, Potestas, and Auctoritas in Societal Constitutionalism. Journal of Law and Society, 45, S30-S51. https://doi.org/10.1111/jols.12118
Pugliese, N. (2017). Spinoza’s Argument for a Bodily Imagination. Filosofia Unisinos, 18, 172-176. https://doi.org/10.4013/fsu.2017.183.07
Ravven, H. M. (2001). Some Thoughts on What Spinoza Learned from Maimonides about the Prophetic Imagination: Part 1. Maimonides on Prophecy and the Imagination. Journal of the History of Philosophy, 39, 193-214. https://doi.org/10.1353/hph.2003.0110
Carrasquillo, F. J. R. (2019). Philosophy and the Metaphorical Interpretation of Religious Texts in Averroes, Maimonides, and Aquinas. The Muslim World, 109, 627-647.
Rosenthal, M. (1997). Why Spinoza Chose the Hebrews: The Exemplary Function of Prophecy in the Theological-Political Treatise. History of Political Thought, 18, 207-241.
Shapira, H. (2018). The Virtue of Mercy according to Maimonides: Ethics, Law, and Theology. Harvard Theological Review, 111, 559.
Shemesh, A. O. (2018). The Physician vs. the Halakhic Man: Theory and Practice in Maimonides’s Attitude towards Treating Gentiles. Journal for the Study of Religions and Ideologies, 17, 18-31.
Soyarslan, S. (2020). From Humility to Envy: Questioning the Usefulness of Sad Passions as a Means towards Virtue in Spinoza’s Ethics. European Journal of Philosophy, 28, 33-47.
Spinoza, B. (2003). Ethics. Ha Kibbutz Ha Meuhad.
Spinoza, B. (2013). The Political Treatise. The Hebrew University.
Tucker, E. (2019). Spinoza, Religion, and Recognition. In M. Kahlos, H. J. Koskinen, & R. Palmén (Eds.), Recognition and Religion (pp. 219-231). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429026089-13
Vasilescu, M. (2019). Leadership Styles and Theories in an Effective Management Activity. Annals-Economy Series, 4, 47-52.
Weiler, G. (2018). Politics, Authority and Prophecy in Maimonides. Religious Traditions: A New Journal in the Study of Religion/Journal of Studies in the Bhagavadgita, 3.
Whitman, N. L. (2020). Out of Many: Prophecy and Sovereign Authority in Maimonides’ and Spinoza’s Politics. In An Examination of the Singular in Maimonides and Spinoza (pp. 47-108). Palgrave Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-49472-8_3
Whitman, N. L. (2020). Prophecy and Intuition: Singular Knowledge in Maimonides’ and Spinoza’s Philosophy. In An Examination of the Singular in Maimonides and Spinoza (pp. 11-46). Palgrave Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-49472-8_2
Wilkes, J., Yip, G., & Simmons, K. (2011). Performance Leadership: Managing for Flexibility. The Journal of Business Strategy, 32, 22-34.
Youpa, A. (2019). The Empowered Life: Freedom. In A. Youpa (Ed.), The Ethics of Joy: Spinoza on the Empowered Life (pp. 126-142). Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190086022.003.0009
Yovel, Y. (1989). Spinoza and Other Heretics. Princeton University Press.
Yukl, G., & Mahsud, R. (2010). Why Flexible and Adaptive Leadership Is Essential. Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 62, 81.
Yukl, G. (2008). The Importance of Flexible Leadership. In R. B. Kaiser (Ed.), the 23rd Annual Conference of the Society for Industrial-Organizational Psychology (pp. 2-7).