This paper describes an opportunity for theoretical linguists to make a particular sort of contribution to the teaching of second-language (L2) grammar. Currently, a popular procedure in L2 instruction for teaching grammar is indirect Written Corrective Feedback (WCF). In this procedure, instructors do not provide corrections but rather merely flag L2 students’ errors with proofreading symbols. These symbols are intended to guide learners to self-correct errors, and it is hoped that through this process, learners might make fewer errors in future writing with these points of grammar. Despite its widespread use, there is evidence that indirect WCF only leads to increased competence for a limited subset of grammatical patterns, exerting no significant positive effect with points of grammar not in this subset. A plausible explanation in such cases is that indirect WCF can fail to provide learners with sufficient feedback to acquire the grammatical paradigm. In such cases, direct WCF may be more helpful, but there is another option, which is to supplement indirect or direct WCF with metalinguistic explanation (ME) of targeted grammatical structures. However, the exact nature of this ME could be critical. As the view of language acquisition depicted under Skill Acquisition Theory (SAT) would predict, learners would specifically require ME that consists of accurate and concisely formulated declarative knowledge of the grammar point in a format that permits the pattern to be proceduralized and eventually automatized. Since formulating concise, accurate, and proceduralizable declarative knowledge for grammar points is a challenge in and of itself, theoretical linguists could pursue this objective and thus helpfully make a particular contribution to L2 grammar instruction. Addressing learner errors involving the articles in English is discussed as an example.
Anderson, J. (1976). Language, Memory, and Thought. Lawrence Earlbaum Associates.
Ashwell, T. (2000). Patterns of Teacher Response to Student Writing in a Multiple-Draft Composition Classroom: Is the Content Feedback Followed by Form Feedback the Best Method? Journal of Second Language Writing, 9, 227-258. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1060-3743(00)00027-8
Bitchener, J. (2008). Evidence in Support of Written Corrective Feedback. Journal of Second Language Writing, 17, 102-118. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jslw.2007.11.004
Bitchener, J., & Knoch, U. (2008). The Value of Written Corrective Feeback for Migrant and International Students. Language Teaching Research, 12, 409-431. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1362168808089924
Bitchener, J., & Knoch, U. (2009). The Contribution of Written Corrective Feedback to Language Development: A Ten Month Investigation. Applied Linguistics, 31, 193-214. https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/amp016
Bitchener, J., & Knoch, U. (2010). Raising the Linguistic Accuracy Level of Advanced L2 Writers with Written Corrective Feedback. Journal of Second Language Writing, 19, 207-217. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jslw.2010.10.002
Bitchener, J., Young, S., & Cameron, D. (2005). The Effect of Different Types of Corrective Feedback on ESL Student Writing. Journal of Second Language Writing, 14, 191-205. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jslw.2005.08.001
Chandler, J. (2003). The Efficacy of Various Kinds of Error Feedback for Improvement in the Accuracy and Fluency of L2 Student Writing. Journal of Second Language Writing, 12, 267-296. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1060-3743(03)00038-9
Christophersen, P. (1939). The Articles: A Study of Their Theory and Use in English. Einar Munksgaard.
DeKeyser, R. (1998). Beyond Focus on Form: Cognitive Perspectives on Learning and Practicing Second Language Grammar. In C. Doughty, & J. Williams (Eds.), Focus on Form in Classroom Second Language Acquisition (pp. 42-63). Cambridge University Press.
DeKeyser, R. (2001). Automaticity and Automatization. In P. Robinson (Ed.), Cognition and Second Language Instruction (pp. 125-151). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139524780.007
DeKeyser, R. (2007). Introduction: Situating the Concept of Practice. In R. M. DeKeyser (Ed.), Practice in Second Language: Perspectives from Applied Linguistics and Cognitive Psychology (pp. 1-18). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511667275.002
Treating Linguistics Errors
Second Language Writing
Language Learning
English Article System
Dryer, M. S. (2013). Indefinite Articles. In M. S. Dryer, & M. Haspelmath (Eds.), The World Atlas of Language Structures Online. Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology. http://wals.info/chapter/38
Ellis, R., Sheen, Y., Murakami, M., & Takashima, H. (2008). The Effects of Focused and Unfocused Written Corrective Feedback in an English as a Foreign Language Context. System, 36, 353-371. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2008.02.001
Fathman, A., & Whalley, E. (1990). Teacher Response to Student Writing: Focus on Form versus Content. In B. Kroll (Ed.), Second Language Writing: Research Insights for the Classroom (pp. 178-190). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139524551.016
Ferris, D. (1999). The Case for Grammar Correction in L2 Writing Classes: A Reponse to Truscott (1996). Journal of Second Language Writing, 8, 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1060-3743(99)80110-6
Ferris, D. (2004). The “Grammar Correction” Debate in L2 Writing: Where Are We, and Where do We go From Here? (And What Do We Do in the Meantime...)? Journal of Second Language Writing, 13, 49-62. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jslw.2004.04.005
Ferris, D. (2010). Second Language Writing Research and Written Corrective Feedback in SLA. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 32, 181-201. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263109990490
Ferris, D., & Roberts, B. (2001). Error Feedback in the L2 Writing Classes: How Explicit Does It Need to Be? Journal of Second Language Writing, 10, 161-184. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1060-3743(01)00039-X
Fhaeizdhyall, A. (2020). Perceived Effect of Written Corrective Feedback on Collocation Competence of Low-Performing ESL Learners: Factors Contributing to Success, Difficulties and Benefits. Asian Journal of Research in Education and Social Sciences, 2, 149-173.
Gorman, M., & Ellis, R. (2019). The Relative Effects of Metalinguistic Explanation and Direct Written Corrective Feedback on Children’s Grammatical Accuracy in New Writing. Language Teaching for Young Learners, 1, 57-81. https://doi.org/10.1075/ltyl.00005.gor
Jespersen, O. (1933). Essentials of English Grammar. Henry Holt and Company.
Kepner, C. (1991). An Experiment in the Relationship of Types of Written Feedback to the Development of Second-Language Writing Skills. Modern Language Journal, 75, 305-313. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4781.1991.tb05359.x
Lalande II, J.F. (1982). Reducing Composition Errors: An Experiment. Modern Language Journal, 66, 140-149. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4781.1982.tb06973.x
Leroux, W., & Kendall, T. (2018). English Article Acquisition by Chinese Learners of English: An Analysis of Two Corpora. System, 76, 13-24. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2018.04.011
Master, P. (1997). The English Article System: Acquisition, Function, and Pedagogy. System, 25, 215-232. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0346-251X(97)00010-9
McLaughlin, B. (1987). Theories of Second Language Acquistion. Edward Arnold.
Nassaji, H. (2011). Correcting Students’ Written Grammatical Errors: The Effects of Negotiated versus Nonnegotiated Feedback. Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching, 1, 315-334. https://doi.org/10.14746/ssllt.2011.1.3.2
Polio, C., Fleck, C., & Leder, N. (1998). If Only I Had More Time: ESL Learners Changes in Linguistic Accuracy on Essay Revisions. Journal of Second Language Writing, 7, 43-68. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1060-3743(98)90005-4
Robb, T., Ross, S., & Shortreed, I. (1986). Salience of Feedback on Error and Its Effect on EFL Writing Quality. TESOL Quarterly, 20, 83-93. https://doi.org/10.2307/3586390
Russell, J., & Spada, N. (2006). The Effectiveness of Corrective Feedback for the Acquisition of L2 Grammar: A Meta-Analysis of the Research. In J. M. Norris, & L. Ortega (Eds.), Synthesizing Research on Language Learning and Teaching (pp. 133-164). John Benjamins Publishing Company. https://doi.org/10.1075/lllt.13.09val
Sheen, Y. (2007). The Effect of Focused Written Corrective Feedback and Language Aptitude on ESL Learners’ Acquisition of Articles. TESOL Quarterly, 41, 255-283. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1545-7249.2007.tb00059.x
Sheen, Y. (2010). Differential Effects of Oral and Written Corrective Feedback in the ESL Classroom. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 32, 203-234. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263109990507
Shintani, N., & Ellis, R. (2013). The Comparative Effect of Direct Written Corrective Feedback and Metalinguisitic Explanation on Learners’ Explicit and Implicit Knowledge of the English Indefinite Article. Journal of Second Language Writing, 22, 286-306. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jslw.2013.03.011
Shintani, N., Ellis, R., & Suzuki, W. (2013). Effects of Written Feedback and Revision on Learners’ Accuracy in Using Two English Grammatical Structures. Language Learning, 64, 103-132. https://doi.org/10.1111/lang.12029
Sinclair, J. (Ed.) (1991). Corpus, Concordance, Collocation. Oxford University Press.
Stefanou, C., & Révész, A. (2015). Direct Written Corrective Feedback, Learner Differences, and the Acquisition of Second Language Article Use for Generic and Specific Plural Reference. The Modern Language Journal, 99, 263-282. https://doi.org/10.1111/modl.12212
Sweet, H. (1900). A New English Grammar: Logical and Historical I. Clarendon Press.
Truscott, J. (1996). The Case against Grammar Correction in L2 Writing Classes. Language Learning, 46, 327-369. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-1770.1996.tb01238.x
Truscott, J. (1999). The Case for “the Case for Grammar Correction in L2 Writing Classes”: A Response to Ferris. Journal of Second Language Writing, 8, 111-122. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1060-3743(99)80124-6
Truscott, J. (2004). Evidence and Conjecture: A Response to Chandler. Journal of Second Language Writing, 13, 337-343. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jslw.2004.05.002
Truscott, J. (2007). The Effect of Error Correction on Learners’ Ability to Write Accurately. Journal of Second Language Writing, 16, 255-272. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jslw.2007.06.003
Truscott, J., & Hsu, A. (2008). Error Correction, Revision, and Learning. Journal of Second Language Writing, 17, 292-305. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jslw.2008.05.003
Wagner, J. & Wulf, D. (2016). Understanding Written Corrective Feedback in Second-Language Grammar Acquisition. Journal of Education and Learning, 5, 259-277. https://doi.org/10.5539/jel.v5n4p259
Wagner, J. (2016). An Explanation of the Effectiveness of Written Corrective Feedback in Second-Language Grammar Acquisition. Ph.D. Dissertation, George Mason University.
Wulf, D. (2016). Assistance in Learning and Teaching the English Article System: Diagnostics and Mnemonics. Open Journal of Modern Lingustics, 6, 317-328. https://doi.org/10.4236/ojml.2016.64032