Would the Convergence of Nanotechnology, Biotechnology, Information Technology and Cognitive Science Be a Springboard for Transhumanism and Posthumanism? — Oak Academic Publishing
Research ArticleOpen AccessGoogle Scholar indexed
Would the Convergence of Nanotechnology, Biotechnology, Information Technology and Cognitive Science Be a Springboard for Transhumanism and Posthumanism?
Faculty of Human and Social Sciences, Department of Philosophy, and Faculty of Medicine, University Saint Thomas d’Aquin (USTA), Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso
,
Faculty of Human and Social Sciences, Department of Philosophy, and Faculty of Medicine, University Saint Thomas d’Aquin (USTA), Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso
1 Faculty of Human and Social Sciences, Department of Philosophy, and Faculty of Medicine, University Saint Thomas d’Aquin (USTA), Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso
2 Faculty of Human and Social Sciences, Department of Philosophy, and Faculty of Medicine, University Saint Thomas d’Aquin (USTA), Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso
Nanotechnologies, biotechnologies, information technologies and cognitive sciences (NBIC) have gradually gained traction in the United States of America (USA), subsequently expanding to Europe, and are now proliferating worldwide. Scientists are trying with more success to remove the causes of death by “repairing” humans, or even by “increasing” their physical and cognitive capacities. NBICs not only can help researchers promote “one health” by improving environmental conditions, human and animal health, but also, they can lead humanity towards transhumanism through eugenics. Thanks to the principle of totality, the intentional modification of the human body for therapeutic purposes through surgery has always been seen as a source of medical progress. But how far can the living human body be modified at will? Gilbert Hottois and Jean-François Mattei have deciphered transhumanism to question its alleged “humanism” and study its impact on our humanity. Today, science has gone further thanks to the possibilities offered by converging NBIC technologies and especially with the advent of human genome editing! The objective of this article is to highlight the hopes and fears of Homo sapiens following the applications of NBICs, and to propose ethical reflections on the invading transhumanist and posthumanist doctrines that tend to become spiritual movements, even religions. A summary study, based on a scientific bibliography, linked to NBICs and including ethical aspects, will present the ethical issues of the convergence of nanotechnologies, biotechnologies, information technologies and cognitive sciences, which could become a springboard for transhumanism and posthumanism.
Amukele, T. (2022). Using Drones to Deliver Blood Products in Rwanda. The Lancet Global Health, 10, e463-e464. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2214-109X(22)00095-X
Aubert-Marson, D. (2009). Sir Francis Galton: Le fondateur de l’eugénisme. Médecine/Sciences (Paris), 25, 641-645. https://doi.org/10.1051/medsci/2009256-7641
Bälter, K., Javan Abraham, F., Mutimukwe, C., Mugisha, R., Persson Osowski, C., & Bälter, O. (2022). A Web-Based Program about Sustainable Development Goals Focusing on Digital Learning, Digital Health Literacy, and Nutrition for Professional Development in Ethiopia and Rwanda: Development of a Pedagogical Method. JMIR Formative Research, 6, e36585. https://doi.org/10.2196/36585
Bansal, S., Floyd, E. R., Kowalski, M.A., Aikman, E., Elrod, P., Burkey, K., Chahla, J., Laprade, R. F., Maher, S. A., Robinson, J. L., & Patel, J. M. (2021). Meniscal Repair: The Current State and Recent Advances in Augmentation. Journal of Orthopaedic Research, 39, 1368-1382. https://doi.org/10.1002/jor.25021
Bielecka, A., & Mohammadi, A. A. (2014). State-of-the-Art in Biosafety and Biosecurity in European Countries. Archivum Immunologiae et Therapiae Experimentalis (Warsz), 62, 169-178. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00005-014-0290-1
Bingham, N. E. (1972). Potter, Van Rensselaer. Bioethics: Bridge to the Future. Englewood Cliffs, N. J. Prentice-Hall, 1971 (196 pages). Science Education, 56, 440-441. https://doi.org/10.1002/sce.3730560329
Börner, K., Scrivner, O., Cross, L. E., Gallant, M., Ma, S., Martin, A. S., Record, L., Yang, H., & Dilger, J. M. (2020). Mapping the Co-Evolution of Artificial Intelligence, Robotics, and the Internet of Things over 20 Years (1998-2017). PLOS ONE, 15, e0242984. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0242984
Bouton, C. E. (2019). Restoring Movement in Paralysis with a Bioelectronic Neural Bypass Approach: Current State and Future Directions. Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Medicine, 9, a034306. https://doi.org/10.1101/cshperspect.a034306
Byungura, J. C., Nyiringango, G., Fors, U., Forsberg, E., & Tumusiime, D. K. (2022). Online Learning for Continuous Professional Development of Healthcare Workers: An Exploratory Study on Perceptions of Healthcare Managers in Rwanda. BMC Medical Education, 22, Article No. 851. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-022-03938-y
Calhaz-Jorge, C., De Geyter, C., Kupka, M. S., De Mouzon, J., Erb, K., Mocanu, E., Motrenko, T., Scaravelli, G., Wyns, C., & Goossens, V. (2017). Assisted Reproductive Technology in Europe, 2013: Results Generated from European Registers by ESHRE. Human Reproduction, 32, 1957-1973. https://doi.org/10.1093/humrep/dex264
Cohen, J. (1988). [Fertilization in Vitro Today and Tomorrow]. Revue Française de Gynécologie et d’Obstétrique, 83, 317-323.
Curbatov, O., & Marie, L.-G. (2016). Convergence NBIC (nano-bio-info-cognitif) et Knowledge. Marketing: Champs expérimentaux d’application. Exemple du domaine biomädical. In International Marketing Trends Conference. https://hal.science/hal-01364860/document
De Jong, W. H., & Borm, P. J. (2008). Drug Delivery and Nanoparticles: Applications and Hazards. International Journal of Nanomedicine, 3, 133-149. https://doi.org/10.2147/IJN.S596
De La Rochebrochard, E. (2018). 1 enfant sur 30 conçu par assistance mädicale à la procräation en France. Population & Sociätäs, 6, 1-4. https://doi.org/10.3917/popsoc.556.0001
Flavigny, C. (2019). Le débat confisquä—PMA, GPA, bioäthique, “genre”, #MeToo... https://www.decitre.fr/livres/le-debat-confisque-9782706718083.html
Giesen, K. G. (2018). [Transhumanism as the Dominant Ideology of the Fourth Industrial Revolution]. Journal International de Bioéthique et d’Éthique des Sciences, 29, 189-203. https://doi.org/10.3917/jibes.293.0189
Granulo, A., Fuchs, C., & Puntoni, S. (2019). Psychological Reactions to Human versus Robotic Job Replacement. Nature Human Behaviour, 3, 1062-1069. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-019-0670-y
Griffith, E. F., Schurer, J. M., Mawindo, B., Kwibuka, R., Turibyarive, T., & Amuguni, J. H. (2023). The Use of Drones to Deliver Rift Valley Fever Vaccines in Rwanda: Perceptions and Recommendations. Vaccines (Basel), 11, Article 605. https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines11030605
Gupta, V., Sengupta, M., Prakash, J., & Tripathy, B. (2016). An Introduction to Biotechnology. In Basic and Applied Aspects of Biotechnology (pp. 1-21). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-0875-7_1
Hottois, G. (2014). Le transhumanisme est-il un humanisme? Académie royale de Belgique. http://www.amazon.fr/dp/B01KORJMKW
Huxley, A. (1932). Le meilleur des mondes (pp. 1-299). Brave New World. https://philofrancais.fr/wp-content/uploads/2017/06/huxley_le_meilleur_des_mondes.pdf
Jordan, B. (2020). [Polygenic Scores: Towards Designer Babies?]. Mädecine/Sciences (Paris), 36, 289-291. https://doi.org/10.1051/medsci/2020028
Khushf, G. (2004). Systems Theory and the Ethics of Human Enhancement: A Framework for NBIC Convergence. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1013, 124-149. https://doi.org/10.1196/annals.1305.007
Khushf, G. (2007). Open Questions in the Ethics of Convergence. The Journal of Medicine and Philosophy, 32, 299-310. https://doi.org/10.1080/03605310701397057
Kilbane 2nd, J. J., (2016). Future Applications of Biotechnology to the Energy Industry. Frontiers in Microbiology, 7, Article 86. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2016.00086
Koch, T. (2010). Enhancing Who? Enhancing What? Ethics, Bioethics, and Transhumanism. The Journal of Medicine and Philosophy, 35, 685-699. https://doi.org/10.1093/jmp/jhq051
Kurzweil, R. (2005). The Singularity Is Near: When Humans Transcend Biology. Penguin Books. https://www.amazon.com/Singularity-Near-Humans-Transcend-Biology/dp/0143037889
Le Mänä, J. (2016). Les premières victimes du transhumanisme. Pierre-Guillaume de Roux. https://www.amazon.fr/premi%C3%A8res-victimes-du-transhumanisme/dp/2363711483
Lecellier, C. H. (2011). [The Democratic Side of Science-Fiction]. Mädecine/Sciences (Paris), 27, 433-438. https://doi.org/10.1051/medsci/2011274021
Lee, H., Chun, W., & Kim, G. (2023). Three-Dimensional Artificial Skin Construct Bioprinted with a Marine-Based Biocomposite. Biomacromolecules, 24, 2864-2878. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.biomac.3c00253
Macpherson, C. C. (2007). Global Bioethics: Did the Universal Declaration on Bioethics and Human Rights Miss the Boat? Journal of Medical Ethics, 33, 588-590. https://doi.org/10.1136/jme.2005.013797
Magnin, T. (2018). Approches äthiques des nouvelles biotechnologies. Traitä de bioäthique, 283-294. https://www.cairn.info/traite-de-bioethique-iv--9782749260839-page-283.htm
Mariani, J. T. D. (2018). Transhumanisme: De l’illusion à l’imposture. https://lejournal.cnrs.fr/billets/transhumanisme-de-lillusion-a-limposture
Mattei, J. F. (2012). Humanity and Human DNA. European Journal of Medical Genetics, 55, 503-509. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejmg.2012.05.007
McCall, B. (2019). Sub-Saharan Africa Leads the Way in Medical Drones. The Lancet, 393, 17-18. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(18)33253-7
Mendz, G. L., & Cook, M. (2021). Transhumanist Genetic Enhancement: Creation of a ‘New Man’ through Technological Innovation. The New Bioethics, 27, 105-126. https://doi.org/10.1080/20502877.2021.1917228
Moawad, M., Nasr, G. M., Osman, A. S., & Shaker, E. S. (2023). Curcumin Nanocapsules Effect in Apoptotic Processes, Gene Expression, and Cell Cycle on Hep-G2 Cell Lines. International Journal of Immunopathology and Pharmacology, 37. https://doi.org/10.1177/03946320231176396
Ndaguba, E., Cilliers, J., Ghosh, S., Herath, S., & Mussi, E. T. (2023). Operability of Smart Spaces in Urban Environments: A Systematic Review on Enhancing Functionality and User Experience. Sensors (Basel), 23, Article 6938. https://doi.org/10.3390/s23156938
Nisingizwe, M. P., Ndishimye, P., Swaibu, K., Nshimiyimana, L., Karame, P., Dushimiyimana, V., Musabyimana, J. P., Musanabaganwa, C., Nsanzimana, S., & Law, M. R. (2022). Effect of Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (Drone) Delivery on Blood Product Delivery Time and Wastage in Rwanda: A Retrospective, Cross-Sectional Study and Time Series Analysis. The Lancet Global Health, 10, e564-e569. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2214-109X(22)00048-1
OECD (1999). Modern Biotechnology and the OECD. https://www.oecd.org/science/emerging-tech/1890904.pdf
Ogbodo, E. U., Abu-Mahfouz, A. M., & Kurien, A. M. (2022). A Survey on 5G and LPWAN-IoT for Improved Smart Cities and Remote Area Applications: From the Aspect of Architecture and Security. Sensors (Basel), 22, Article 6313. https://doi.org/10.3390/s22166313
Pruski, M. (2019). What Demarks the Metamorphosis of Human Individuals to Posthuman Entities? The New Bioethics, 25, 3-23. https://doi.org/10.1080/20502877.2019.1564003
Rey, O. (2018a). Le transhumanisme conçoit l’homme comme un chantier technologique. https://www.genethique.org/olivier-rey-le-transhumanisme-concoit-lhomme-comme-un-chantier-technologique/
Rey, O. (2018b). Leurre et malheur du transhumanisme. Desclée De Brouwer. https://www.amazon.fr/Leurre-malheur-transhumanisme-Olivier-Rey/dp/2220095517
Richie, C. (2022). Introduction, Global Bioethics. Global Bioethics, 33, 1-3. https://doi.org/10.1080/11287462.2021.2011000
Roco, M. C. (2003a). Converging Science and Technology at the Nanoscale: Opportunities for Education and Training. Nature Biotechnology, 21, 1247-1249. https://doi.org/10.1038/nbt1003-1247
Roco, M. C. (2003b). Nanotechnology: Convergence with modern Biology and Medicine. Current Opinion in Biotechnology, 14, 337-346. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0958-1669(03)00068-5
Rose, B. I., & Brown, S. (2019). Genetically Modified Babies and a First Application of Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats (CRISPR-Cas9). Obstetrics & Gynecology, 134, 157-162. https://doi.org/10.1097/AOG.0000000000003327
Shoss, M. K., & Ciarlante, K. (2022). Are Robots/AI Viewed as More of a Workforce Threat in Unequal Societies? Evidence from the Eurobarometer Survey. Technology, Mind, and Behavior, 3, 1-46. https://doi.org/10.1037/tmb0000078
Steffann, J., Feyereisen, E., Kerbrat, V., Romana, S., & Frydman, N. (2005). [Prenatal and Preimplantation Genetic Diagnosis: Decision Tree, New Practices?]. Mädecine/Sciences (Paris), 21, 987-992. https://doi.org/10.1051/medsci/20052111987
Tan, R., Cobuccio, L., Beynon, F., Levine, G. A. et al. (2023). ePOCT+ and the medAL-suite: Development of an Electronic Clinical Decision Support Algorithm and Digital Platform for Pediatric Outpatients in Low- and Middle-Income Countries. PLOS Digital Health, 2, e0000170. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pdig.0000170
Ten Have, H. (2022). The Challenges of Global Bioethics. Global Bioethics, 33, 41-44. https://doi.org/10.1080/11287462.2021.2011008
Testart, J. (1995). The New Eugenics and Medicalized Reproduction. Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics, 4, 304-312. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0963180100006058
Testart, J. R. A. (2018). Au päril de l’humain: Les promesses suicidaires des transhumanistes. https://www.seuil.com/ouvrage/au-peril-de-l-humain-jacques-testart/9782021342994
Tomkins, J. (2014). Developing Theological Tools for a Strategic Engagement with Human Enhancement. The New Bioethics, 20, 141-152. https://doi.org/10.1179/2050287714Z.00000000049
Tong, R. (2022). Towards a Feminist Global Ethics. Global Bioethics, 33, 14-31. https://doi.org/10.1080/11287462.2021.2011002
UNESCO (2021a). AI and Education: Promise and Implications.
UNESCO (2021b). Recommendation on the Ethics of Artificial Intelligence. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000381133/PDF/381133eng.pdf.multi.page=30
Vahanian, G. (1991). Hans Jonas, Le principe responsabilitä: Une äthique pour la civilisation technologique. Revue d’Histoire et de Philosophie religieuses, 71, 499.
WHO (2021). Ethics and Governance of Artificial Intelligence for Health.
Yadi, M., Mostafavi, E., Saleh, B., Davaran, S., Aliyeva, I., Khalilov, R., Nikzamir, M., Nikzamir, N., Akbarzadeh, A., Panahi, Y., & Milani, M. (2018). Current Developments in Green Synthesis of Metallic Nanoparticles Using Plant Extracts: A Review. Artificial Cells, Nanomedicine, and Biotechnologyl, 46, S336-S343. https://doi.org/10.1080/21691401.2018.1492931
Zaid, A., Hughes, H. G., Porceddu, E., & Nicholas, F. (2001). Glossary of Biotechnology for Food and Agriculture—A Revised and Augmented Edition of the Glossary of Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering. FAO. http://www.fao.org/DOCREP/003/X3910E/X3910E00.htm