“I Am the Law and Order Candidate”: A Content Analysis of Donald Trump’s Race-Baiting Dog Whistles in the 2016 Presidential Campaign — Oak Academic Publishing
Research ArticleOpen AccessGoogle Scholar indexed
“I Am the Law and Order Candidate”: A Content Analysis of Donald Trump’s Race-Baiting Dog Whistles in the 2016 Presidential Campaign
Department of Psychology, National University, San Diego, CA, USA
1 Department of Psychology, National University, San Diego, CA, USA
Though many in news media have accused Donald Trump of being racist or dog-whistling during the 2016 United States Presidential campaign, there has been little empirical analysis of Trump’s words. A content analysis of Donald Trump’s speeches as the Republican Presidential Nominee was conducted to search for race baiting dog whistles. The paper uses the content analytical method, which seeks alignment of message, messenger, and receiver; as such, analysis included not only Trump’s words but connection with extant research on his political persona and his supporters. Analysis showed alignment in the three areas, including consistent dog whistle usage in Trump’s speeches. Trump’s dog whistle usage also significantly exceeded that of recent Republican Presidential Nominees.
Abernathy, G. (2017, July 21). In Trump Country, Russia Just Isn’t Big News. Here’s Why. Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/in-trump-country-russia-just-isnt-big-news-heres- why/2017/07/21/8514f49e-6cc3-11e7-9c15-177740635e83_story.html
Abernathy, S. F. (2005). School Choice and the Future of American Democracy. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan. https://doi.org/10.3998/mpub.132241
Albertson, B. L. (2006). Dog-Whistle Politics, Coded Communication, and Religious Appeals. American Political Science Association and International Society of Political Psychology. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University.
Allen, G. (2015, June 26). Univision Cuts Ties with Trump after Comments about Immigrants. NPR.org. https://www.npr.org/sections/itsallpolitics/2015/06/25/417586527/ univision-cuts-ties-with-trump-after-comments-about-immigrants
Associated Press (2017, May 9). Wisconsin Voter ID Law Proved Insurmountable for Many Voters. https://www.cbsnews.com/news/wisconsin-voter-id-law-turned-voters-estimate/
Banks, A. J. (2014). Anger and Racial Politics: The Emotional Foundation of Racial Attitudes in America. New York: Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781107279247
Banks, A. J., & Bell, M. A. (2013). Racialized Campaign Ads: The Emotional Content in Implicit Racial Appeals Primes White Racial Attitudes. Public Opinion Quarterly, 77, 549-560. https://doi.org/10.1093/poq/nft010
Banks, A. J., & Hicks, H. M. (2016). Fear and Implicit Racism: Whites’ Support for Voter ID Laws. Political Psychology, 37, 641-658. https://doi.org/10.1111/pops.12292
BBC News (2016, July 8). Dallas Shooting: Gunman “Wanted to Kill Whites” Says Police Chief. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-36745862
Bobo, L. (2017). Racism in Trump’s America: Reflections on Culture, Sociology, and the 2016 US Presidential Election. British Journal of Sociology, 68, 87-104.
Bonilla-Silva, E. (2018). Racism without Racists (5th ed.). Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.
Bowler, S., & Segura, G. M. (2012). The Future Is Ours: Minority Politics, Political Behavior, and the Multiracial Era of American Politics. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications.
Bowler, S., Nicholson, S. P., & Segura, G. M. (2006). Earthquakes and Aftershocks: Race, Direct Democracy, and Partisan Change. American Journal of Political Science, 50, 146-159. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-5907.2006.00175.x
Brader, T. (2006). Campaigning for Hearts and Minds: How Emotional Appeals in Political Ads Work. Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press. https://doi.org/10.7208/chicago/9780226788302.001.0001
Braker-Walters, B. (2014). Informational Text and the Common Core: A Content Analysis of Three Basal Reading Programs. Sage OPEN, 4. https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244014555119
Brewster, J. (2020, October 1). Report: Trump Officials Were Directed to Defend Kyle Rittenhouse Publicly, Documents Show. Forbes. https://www.forbes.com/sites/jackbrewster/2020/10/01/report-trump-officials-were-directed-to -defend-kyle-rittenhouse-publicly-documents-show/?sh=42f31e4b6eeb
Brown, J. A. (2016a). The New “Southern Strategy:” Immigration, Race, and “Welfare Dependency” in Contemporary US Republican Political Discourse. Geopolitics, History, and International Relations, 8, 22-41.
Brown, J. A. (2016b). Running on Fear: Immigration, Race and Crime Framings in Contemporary GOP Presidential Debate Discourse. Critical Criminology, 24, 315-331. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10612-016-9317-8
Capeheart, J. (2017, July 6). Trump’s White-Nationalist Dog Whistles in Warsaw. Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/post-partisan/wp/2017/07/06/trumps -white-nationalist-dog-whistles-in-warsaw/?utm_term=.edebeb659d7d
Cepeda, E. J. (2018, May 30). We Can All Hear Trump’s Dog Whistles to Racists. Al Día. https://aldianews.com/articles/opinion/we-can-all-hear-trumps-dog-whistles-racists/52801
Chance, S. E., & Glickauf-Hughes, C. (1995). Understanding and Differentiating Clients’ Positive Feelings in Psychotherapy. American Journal of Psychotherapy, 49, 514-525. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.psychotherapy.1995.49.4.514
Chavez, L. R. (2001). Covering Immigration: Popular Images and the Politics of a Nation. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
Chavez, M., Whiteford, S., & Hoewe, J. (2010). Reporting on Immigration: A Content Analysis of Major U.S. Newspapers’ Coverage of Mexican Immigration. Norteamérica, 5, 111-125.
Cilizza, C. (2017, August 23). Donald Trump’s 57 Most Outrageous Quotes from His Arizona Speech. CNN.com. https://www.cnn.com/2017/08/23/politics/donald-trump-arizona/index.html
Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2018). Research Methods in Education (8th ed.). New York: Routledge.
Cohn, N. (2017, March 28). A 2016 Review: Turnout Wasn’t the Driver of Clinton’s Defeat. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2017/03/28/upshot/a-2016-review- turnout-wasnt-the-driver-of-clintons-defeat.html
Collins, B., & Zadrozny, B. (2020, September 29). Proud Boys Celebrate after Trump’s debate Callout. NBC News. https://www.nbcnews.com/tech/tech-news/proud-boys-celebrate-after-trump-s-debate-call-out-n1241512
Cornielle, O., Yzerbyt, V. Y., Rogier, A., & Buidin, G. (2001). Threat and the Group Attribution Error: When Threat Elicits Judgments of Extremity and Homogeneity. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 27, 437-446. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167201274005
Council on American-Islamic Relations (2018). 2018 Civil Rights Report: Targeted. http://www.islamophobia.org/reports/224-2018-civil-rights-report-targeted.html
Cyders, M. A., & Smith, G. T. (2008). Emotion-Based Dispositions to Rash Action: Positive and Negative Urgency. Psychological Bulletin, 134, 807-828. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0013341
Dawsey, J. (2018, January 12). Trump Derides Protections for Immigrants from “Shithole” Countries. Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/trump-attacks-protections-for-immigrants- from-shithole-countries-in-oval-office-meeting/2018/01/11/bfc0725c -f711-11e7-91af-31ac729add94_story.html
de Vogue, A. (2016, October 31). NAACP Files Suit in North Carolina on Voting Registration Purge. CNN.com. https://www.cnn.com/2016/10/31/politics/naacp-north-carolina-voting-registration-purge/
DeGroot, L., Emamdjomeh, A., Menezes, R., & Pesce, A. (2016, November 10). How Donald Trump Really Won the White House. Los Angeles Times. http://www.latimes.com/projects/la-na-pol-us-election-results-by-county/
DelReal, J. A., & Sullivan, S. (2016, October 30). “Jew-S-A!” Chant Is Latest Reminder of White Supremacist Support for Trump. Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/trump-campaign-manager-condemns-rally-supporter- who-chanted-jew-s-a/2016/10/30/92e73622-9ee2-11e6-8832-23a007c77bb4_story.html?utm_term=.9acdd9508929
Desmond-Harris, J. (2014, March 15). 8 Sneaky Racial Code Words and Why Politicians Love Them. The Root. https://www.theroot.com/8-sneaky-racial-code-words-and-why-politicians-love-the-1790874941
Diamond, J. (2015, December 8). Donald Trump: Ban All Muslim Travel to U.S. CNN. https://www.cnn.com/2015/12/07/politics/donald-trump-muslim-ban-immigration/index.html
DiAngelo, R. (2018). White Fragility. Boston, MA: Beacon.
Domke, D. (2001). Racial Cues and Political Ideology: An Examination of Associative Priming. Communication Research, 28, 772-801. https://doi.org/10.1177/009365001028006003
Ehrlichman, J. (1982). Witness to Power: The Nixon Years. New York: Simon and Schuster.
Ellis, A. (1962). Reason and Emotion in Psychotherapy. New York: Stuart.
Elo, S., & Kingas, H. (2007). The Qualitative Content Analysis Process. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 62, 107-115. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2648.2007.04569.x
Fabian, J. (2020, October 1). Trump Says He Condemns Proud Boys and White Supremacists. Pittsburgh Post-Gazette. https://www.post-gazette.com/news/vote2020/2020/10/01/Trump-says-he-condemns- Proud-Boys-and-white-supremacists/stories/202010010195
Fernández, C., & Pedroza, L. R. (1982). The Border Patrol and News Media Coverage of Undocumented Mexican Immigration during the 1970s: A Quantitative Content Analysis in the Sociology of Knowledge. California Sociologist, 5, 1-26.
Finnegan, M., & Bierman, N. (2016, March 13). Trump’s Endorsement of Violence Reaches New Level: He May Pay Legal Fees for Assault Suspect. Los Angeles Times. https://www.latimes.com/politics/la-na-trump-campaign-protests-20160313-story.html
Forgas, J. P. (2008). Affect and Cognition. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 3, 94-101. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-6916.2008.00067.x
Fowler, M., Medenica, V. F., & Cohen, C. J. (2017, December 15). Why 41 Percent of White Millennials Voted for Trump. Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/monkey-cage/wp/2017/12/15/ racial-resentment-is-why-41-percent-of-white-millennials-voted-for-trump-in- 2016/?utm_term=.974ddad6181f
Fraga, B. L., McElwee, S., Rhodes, J., & Schaffner, B. (2017, May 8). Why Did Trump Win? More Whites—And Fewer Blacks—Actually Voted. Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/monkey-cage/wp/2017/05/08/why-did-trump-win- more-whites-and-fewer-blacks-than-normal-actually-voted/?utm_term=.d04d7b95dee8
Freeman, B. C. (2017). Claims, Frames, and Blame: Coverage of Climate Change in ASEAN’s English-Language Newspapers, 2002-2012. Sage OPEN, 7. https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244016675199
Freud, S. (1961). Civilization and Its Discontents. New York: W. W. Norton & Company.
Fusarelli, L. D. (2003). The Political Dynamics of School Choice. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1057/9781403973740
Gabbatt, A. (2015, June 16). Donald Trump’s Tirade on Mexico’s “Drugs and Rapists” Outrages US Latinos. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2015/jun/16/donald-trump-mexico-presidential-speech-latino-hispanic
Gehlert, K. M., Pinke, J., & Segal, R. (2014). A Trainee’s Guide to Conceptualizing Countertransference in Marriage and Family Therapy Supervision. The Family Journal: Counseling and Therapy for Couples and Families, 22, 7-16. https://doi.org/10.1177/1066480713504894
Gertz, M. (2017, April 19). NFL Census 2016. ProFootballLogic.com. http://www.profootballlogic.com/articles/nfl-census-2016/
Gilchrist, T. E. (2018, August 14). Twitter Responds to Trump’s Racist/Misogynistic “Dog” Whistle. The Advocate. https://www.advocate.com/politics/2018/8/14/twitter-responds- trumps-racistmisogynistic-dog-whistle
Greenberg, L. S. (2012). Emotions, the Great Captains of Our Lives: Their Role in the Process of Change in Psychotherapy. American Psychologist, 67, 697-707. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0029858
Greene, J. (2013). Moral Tribes: Emotion, Reason, and the Gap between Us and Them. New York: Penguin Press.
Haidt, J. (2006). The Happiness Hypothesis: Finding Modern Truth in Ancient Wisdom. New York: Basic Books.
Haidt, J. (2012). The Righteous Mind: Why Good People Are Divided by Politics and Religion. New York: Vintage Books.
Hall, K., Goldstein, D. M., & Ingram, M. B. (2016). The Hands of Donald Trump: Entertainment, Gesture, Spectacle. Journal of Ethnographic Theory, 6, 71-100. https://doi.org/10.14318/hau6.2.009
Hanley López, I. (2014). Dog Whistle Politics. New York: Oxford.
Hanley López, I. (2016, November 10). This Is How Trump Convinces His Supporters They’re Not Racist. The Nation. https://www.thenation.com/article/this-is-how-trump-supporters- convince-themselves-theyre-not-racist/
Hofstadter, R. (1965). The Paranoid Style in American Politics. New York: Random House.
Hurwitz, J., & Peffley, M. (2005). Playing the Race Card in the Post-Willie Horton Era: The Impact of Racialized Code Words on Support for Punitive Crime Policy. Public Opinion Quarterly, 69, 99-112. https://doi.org/10.1093/poq/nfi004
Ioanide, P. (2015). The Emotional Politics of Racism. Stanford, CA: Stanford University. https://doi.org/10.1515/9780804795487
Izard, C. E. (1977). Human Emotions. New York: Plenum Press. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4899-2209-0
Jardina, A. (2019). White Identity Politics. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108645157
Karni, A., Haberman, M., & Ember, S. (2020, July 29). Trump Plays on Racist Fears of Terrorized Suburbs to Court White Voters. New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2020/07/29/us/politics/trump-suburbs-housing-white-voters.html
Kendi, I. X. (2016). Stamped from the Beginning: The Definitive History of Racist Ideas. New York: Nation Books.
King, M., & Barrón-López, L. (2020, October 1). Trump Blames Low-Income People, Minorities for “Running” Suburbia. Politico. https://www.politico.com/news/2020/10/01/how-white-grievance- politics-informs-trumps-campaign-playbook-424590
Kopan, T. (2018, February 23). Arrests of Immigrants, Especially Non-Criminals, Way Up in Trump’s First Year. CNN.com. https://www.cnn.com/2018/02/23/politics/trump-immigration-arrests-deportations/index.html
Krippendorff, K. (2011). Computing Krippendorff’s Alpha-Reliability. http://repository.upenn.edu/asc_papers/43
Krzywinski, M. (2016, October 20). Word Analysis of 2016 Presidential Debates—Clinton vs. Trump. British Columbia Genome Sciences Center. http://mkweb.bcgsc.ca/debates2016
Lasch, C. N. (2016). Sanctuary Cities and Dog-Whistle Politics. New England Journal on Criminal and Civil Confinement, 42, 159-190.
Lassiter, M. D. (2006). The Silent Majority. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University.
Lauter, D. (2016, November 11). Why Did Trump Win? Because Democrats Stayed Home. Los Angeles Times. http://www.latimes.com/politics/la-na-pol-election-turnout-20161111-story.html
Lazarus, R. S. (1991). Emotion and Adaptation. New York: Oxford University Press.
Lent, R. W., Brown, S. D., & Hackett, G. (1994). Toward a Unifying Social Cognitive Theory of Career and Academic Interest, Choice, and Performance. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 45, 79-122. https://doi.org/10.1006/jvbe.1994.1027
Levin, J. (2013, December 19). The Welfare Queen. Slate. http://www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/history/2013/12/linda_taylor_welfare_queen_ ronald_reagan_made_her_a_notorious_american_villain.html
Levitz, E. (2016, July 12). Trump Criticizes Black Lives Matter for Its “Horrible” and “Divisive” Rhetoric. Intelligencer. https://nymag.com/intelligencer/2016/07/trump-blm-protesters-use-horrible-rhetoric.html
Lodge, M., & Taber, C. S. (2013). The Rationalizing Voter. New York: Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139032490
Luhby, T. (2016, September 1). Trump Condemns Sanctuary Cities, but What Are They? CNN. https://www.cnn.com/2016/09/01/politics/sanctuary-cities-donald-trump/index.html
Manganello, J., & Blake, N. (2010). A Study of Quantitative Content Analysis of Health Messages in U.S. Media from 1985 to 2005. Health Communication, 25, 387-396. https://doi.org/10.1080/10410236.2010.483333
Marable, M. (2007). Race, Reform, and Rebellion: The Second Reconstruction and Beyond in Black America, 1945-2006. Jackson, MS: University Press of Mississippi.
Marcus, G. E., & MacKuen, M. B. (1993). Anxiety, Enthusiasm, and the Vote: The Emotional Underpinnings of Learning and Involvement during Presidential Campaigns. American Political Science Review, 87, 672-685. https://doi.org/10.2307/2938743
Marietta, M., & Barker, D. C. (2019). One Nation, Two Realities. New York: Oxford. https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190677176.001.0001
Mathis-Lilley, B. (2016, June 18). A Continually Growing List of Violent Incidents at Trump Events. Slate. http://www.slate.com/blogs/the_slatest/2016/03/02/a_list_of _violent_incidents_at_donald_trump_rallies_and_events.html
Mayring, P. (2014). Qualitative Content Analysis. Klagenfurt. http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:0168-ssoar-395173
McCaskill, N. D. (2016, August 31). Trump Promises Wall and Massive Deportation Program. Politico. https://www.politico.com/story/2016/08/donald-trump-immigration-address-arizona-227612
McElwee, S. (2016, November 13). Yep, Race Really Did Trump Economics: A Data Dive on His Supporters Reveals Deep Racial Animosity. Salon. https://www.salon.com/2016/11/13/yep-race-really-did-trump-economics-a-data- dive-on-his-supporters-reveals-deep-racial-animosity/
Mendelberg, T. (2001). The Race Card. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University. https://doi.org/10.1515/9781400889181
Mendelberg, T. (2008). Racial Priming Revived. Perspectives on Politics, 6, 109-123. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1537592708080092
Morken, H., & Formicola, J. R. (1999). The Politics of School Choice. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.
Mutz, D. C. (2018). Status Threat, Not Economic Hardship, Explains the 2016 Presidential Vote. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 115, 4330-4339. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1718155115
Nelson, T. E., & Kinder, D. R. (1996). Issue Frames and Group-Centrism in American public Opinion. Journal of Politics, 58, 1055-1078. https://doi.org/10.2307/2960149
Neuendorf, K. (2002). The Content Analysis Guidebook. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Neuman, W. R., Marcus, G. E., MacKuen, M., & Crigler, A. N. (2007). The Affect Effect: Dynamics of Emotion in Political Thinking and Behavior. Chicago, Il: University of Chicago Press.
Neville, H. A., Awad, G. H., Brooks, J. E., Flores, M. P., & Bluemel, J. (2013). Color-Blind Racial Ideology. American Psychologist, 68, 455-466. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0033282
Ngai, M. (2013, February). Comprehensive Immigration Reform and the Elephant in the Room. Dissent Magazine. https://www.dissentmagazine.org/blog/comprehensive-immigration- reform-and-the-elephant-in-the-room
Nimegeer, A., Patterson, C., & Hilton, S. (2019). Media Framing of Childhood Obesity: A Content Analysis of UK Newspapers from 1996 to 2014. BMJ Open, 9, e025646. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2018-025646
Nisbet, E., & Shanahan, J. (2004, December). MSRG Special Report: Restrictions on Civil Liberties, Views of Islam, & Muslim Americans. Media and Society Research Group, Cornell University. http://media.portland.indymedia.org/media/2004/12/306504.pdf
Nisbet, E., Ostman, R., & Shanahan, J. (2008). Shaping the Islamic Threat: The Influence of Ideology, Religiosity, and Media Use on Public Opinion toward Islam and Muslim Americans. In A. H. Sinno (Ed.), Muslims in Western Politics (pp. 161-199). Bloomington, IN: University of Indiana Press.
Oliver, J. E., & Rahn, W. M. (2016). Rise of the “Trumpenvolk”: Populism in the 2016 election. The Annals of the American Academy, 667, 189-206. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716216662639
Pandolfo, C. (2018, August 23). Journalists Accuse Trump of Blowing “Dog Whistle” in South Africa Land Seizure Tweet. Conservative Review. https://www.theblaze.com/conservative-review/journalists-accuse- trump-of-blowing-dog-whistle-in-south-africa-land-seizure-tweet
Parker, A. (2016, March 10). Black Protester Is Sucker-Punched by White Donald Trump Supporter at Rally. New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/politics/first-draft/2016/03/10/donald-trump-rally-protester/
Pérez, E. O. (2016). Unspoken Politics: Implicit Attitudes and Political Thinking. New York: Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781316460078
Phoenix, D. L. (2019). The Anger Gap: How Race Shapes Emotion in Politics. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108641906
Potts, M. (2016, November 10). Donald Trump Won on White-Male Resentment—But Don’t Confuse That with the Working Class. The Nation. https://www.thenation.com/article/donald-trump-won-on-white- male-resentment-but-dont-confuse-that-with-the-working-class
Preston, W. (1963). Aliens and Dissenters: Federal Suppression of Radicals, 1903-1933. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Quintana, S. (2016, July 8). Hundreds Hold Peaceful Protest in San Francisco against Police Brutality. ABC News. https://abc7news.com/black-lives-matter-police-brutality-shootings/1419707/
Redlawsk, D. P., Civettini, A. J. W., & Lau, R. R. (2007). Affective Intelligence and Voting: Information Processing and Learning in a Campaign. In W. R. Neuman, G. E. Marcus, M. MacKuen, & A. N. Crigler (Eds.), The Affect Effect: Dynamics of Emotion in Political Thinking and Behavior (pp. 1-23). Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Roda, A., & Wells, A. S. (2013). School Choice Policies and Racial Segregation: Where White Parents’ Good Intentions, Anxiety, and Privilege Collide. American Journal of Education, 119, 261-293. https://doi.org/10.1086/668753
Rösch, A. G., Stanton, S. J., & Schultheiss, O. C. (2013). Implicit Motives Predict Affective Responses to Emotional Expressions. Frontiers in Psychology, 4, 985. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00985
Rothstein, D. (2017). The Color of Law: A Forgotten History of How Our Government Segregated America. New York: W. W. Norton & Co.
Rothwell, J. T., & Diego-Rosell, P. (2016, November 6). Explaining Nationalist Political Views: The Case of Donald Trump. Social Science Research Network. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2822059
Said, E. W. (1997). Covering Islam: How the Media and the Experts Determine How We See the Rest of the World. New York: Vintage Books.
Sargent, G. (2017, May 1). Why Did Trump Win? New Research by Democrats Offers a Worrisome Answer. Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/plum-line/wp/2017/05/01/why-did-trump-win- new-research-by-democrats-offers-a-worrisome-answer/?utm_term=.52bcb6bf4b9a
Saul, J. (2016, December 5). Why Did Donald Trump Win? Just Visit Luzerne County, Pennsylvania. Newsweek. http://www.newsweek.com/2016/12/16/donald-trump- pennsylvania-win-luzerne-county-527861.html
Saunders, G. (2016). Trump Days: Who Are All These Trump Supporters? New Yorker.
Schaffner, B. F., MacWilliams, M., & Nteta, T. (2017, January). Explaining White Polarization in the 2016 Vote for President: The Sobering Role of Racism and Sexism. Paper Presented at the Conference on the U.S. Elections of 2016: Domestic and International Aspects, Herzliya, Israel. https://doi.org/10.1002/polq.12737
Schaffner, B. F., MacWilliams, M., & Nteta, T. (2018). Understanding White Polarization in the 2016 Vote for President: The Sobering Role of Racism and Sexism. Political Science Quarterly, 133, 9-34. https://doi.org/10.1002/polq.12737
Schiller, B. (2016, November 9). Why Did Trump Win? The Economy, Stupid. Los Angeles Times. http://www.latimes.com/opinion/op-ed/la-oe-schiller-trump-victory-economy-20161109-story.html
Sidanius, J., Pratto, F., & Bobo, L. (1996). Racism, Conservatism, Affirmative Action, and Intellectual Sophistication: A Matter of Principled Conservatism or Group Dominance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70, 476-490. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.70.3.476
Siegler, K. (2016, March 18). Trump Picks up Sheriff Joe Arpaio’s Endorsement before Arizona Primary. NPR. https://www.npr.org/2016/03/18/470925848/trump-picks-up- anti-immigration-endorsement-before-arizona-primary
Silver, N. (2016, November 22). Education, Not Income, Predicted Who Would Vote for Trump. FiveThirtyEight. http://fivethirtyeight.com/features/education-not-income-predicted-who-would-vote-for-trump/
Slocum, F. (2001). White Racial Attitudes and Implicit Racial Appeals: An Experimental Study of “Race Coding” in Political Discourse. Politics & Policy, 29, 651-669. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1747-1346.2001.tb00609.x
Smith, D. N., & Hanley, E. (2018). The Anger Games: Who Voted for Donald Trump in the 2016 Election, and Why? Critical Sociology, 44, 195-212. https://doi.org/10.1177/0896920517740615
Smith, T. W. (1987). That Which We Call Welfare by Any Other Name Would Smell Sweeter: An Analysis of the Impact of Question Wording on Response Patterns. Public Opinion Quarterly, 51, 75-83. https://doi.org/10.1086/269015
Stemler, S. (2000). An Overview of Content Analysis. Practical Assessment, Research, and Evaluation, 7, Article 17.
Stevenson, P. W. (2016, January 15). Trump Embraces His Anger. And Really, Why Wouldn’t He? Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/the-fix/wp/2016/01/15/donald- trump-embraces-the-mantle-of-anger-and-why-wouldnt-he-video/
Struyk, R. (2017, August 15). By the Numbers: 7 Charts That Explain Hate Groups in the U.S. CNN. https://www.cnn.com/2017/08/14/politics/charts-explain-us-hate-groups/index.html
Sue, D. W. (2011). The Challenge of White Dialectics: Making the “Invisible” Visible. Counseling Psychologist, 39, 415-422. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011000010390702
Tesler, M. (2015). The Conditions Ripe for Racial Spillover Effects. Advances in Political Psychology, 36, 101-117. https://doi.org/10.1111/pops.12246
Tesler, M. (2016a). Post-Racial or Most-Racial? Race and Politics in the Obama Era. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. https://doi.org/10.7208/chicago/9780226353159.001.0001
Tesler, M. (2016b, August 22). Economic Anxiety Isn’t Driving Racial Resentment. Racial Resentment Is Driving Economic Anxiety. Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/monkey-cage/wp/2016/08/22/economic-anxiety- isnt-driving-racial-resentment-racial-resentment-is-driving-economic-anxiety/?utm_term=.026c406f09ef
Thompson, D. (2018, March 8). Busting the Myth of “Welfare Makes People Lazy”. The Atlantic. https://www.theatlantic.com/business/archive/2018/03/welfare-childhood/555119/
Trende, S., & Byler, D. (2017, January 20). How Trump Won—Conclusions. RealClearPolitics. https://www.realclearpolitics.com/articles/2017/01/20/how_trump_won_--_conclusions_132846.html
Valentino, N. A., Neuner, F. G., & Vandenbroek, L. M. (2018). The Changing Norms of Racial Political Rhetoric and the End of Racial Priming. Journal of Politics, 80, 757-771. https://doi.org/10.1086/694845
Vokey, M., Tefft, B., & Tysiaczny, C. (2013). An Analysis of Hyper-Masculinity in Magazine Advertisements. Sex Roles, 68, 562-576. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-013-0268-1
Wells, A. S., & Roda, A. (2016). The Impact of Political Context on the Questions Asked and Answered: The Evolution of Education Research on Racial Inequality. Review of Research in Education, 40, 62-93. https://doi.org/10.3102/0091732X16681758
White, D. (2016, February 1). Donald Trump Tells Crowd to “Knock the Crap Out of” Hecklers. Time. https://time.com/4203094/donald-trump-hecklers/
White, I. K. (2007). When Race Matters and When It Doesn’t: Racial Group Differences in Response to Racial Cues. American Political Science Review, 101, 339-354. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003055407070177
Wines, M. (2016, October 25). As ID Laws Fall, Voters See New Barriers Rise. New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2016/10/26/us/elections/voter-id-laws.html
Wise, A. (2020, August 31). Trump Defends Kenosha Shooting Suspect. NPR. https://www.npr.org/sections/live-updates-protests-for-racial-justice/2020/08/31/ 908137377/trump-defends-kenosha-shooting-suspect
Wood, T. (2017, April 17). Racism Motivated Trump Voters More than Authoritarianism. Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/monkey-cage/wp/2017/04/17/racism-motivated-trump -voters-more-than-authoritarianism-or-income-inequality/?utm_term=.0e2659bcf776
Yalom, I. (2005). Theory and Practice of Group Psychotherapy (5th ed.). New York: Basic Books.
Yan, H., & Park, M. (2016, September 23). Charlotte Police Shooting: Protests Mostly Peaceful. CNN. https://www.cnn.com/2016/09/23/us/charlotte-protests/index.html
Zhong, W. (2016, April 14). The Candidates in Their Own Words: A Textual Analysis of 2016 Presidential Primary Debates. American Enterprise Institute. https://www.aei.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/ 04/The-candidates-in-their-own-words.pdf