The novel COVID-19 pandemic has swept the entire world, seriously threatening the safety of all mankind, causing psychosocial panic and global financial crisis. Public measures taken to reduce the spread of Coronavirus have disrupted social and economic systems. At the same time, the entire world population is exposed to various persistent stressors that lead to mental health problems. These include social isolation, loss of employment, severe stress due to loved ones being infected or deceased, and fear of being affected by an invisible enemy. Given the psychological, social and economic burden placed on the entire world’s population, the impact on mental health is still not fully graspable, as the COVID-19 pandemic is one continuum of traumatic event. When facing stressful situations, most individuals may cope in a resilient manner; however, it is common that resilience decreases due to uncertainty and continuation of the stressor. Thereby, the strategies in dealing with the pandemic’s impact upon mental health problems require a long-term concept.
Allan, S. M., Bealey, J., Cushing, T., Sergi, G. et al. (2020). The Prevalence of Common and Stress-Related Health Disorder in Healthcare Workers Based in Pandemic-Affected Hospitals: A Rapid Systematic Review and Meat-Analysis. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 11, Article No. 1810903. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2020.1810903
APA (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5). Washington DC: American Psychiatric Association.
Bialer, P. A., & Wallack, J. J. (2000). Chapter 53. Human Immunodeficiency Virus and AIDS. In A. Stoudemire, B. S. Fogel, & B. D. Greenberg (Eds.), Psychiatric Care of the Medical Patient (2nd ed., pp. 871-888). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Brooks, S. K., Dunn, R., Amlot, R., Rubin, G. J., & Greenberg, N. (2018). A systematic, Thematic Review of Social and Occupational Factors Associated with Psychological Outcomes in Healthcare Employers during an Infectious Disease Outbreak. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 60, 248-257. https://doi.org/10.1097/JOM.0000000000001235
Cloitre, M., Hyland, P., Bisson, J. I., Brewin, C. R. et al. (2019). ICD-11 PTSD and Complex PTSD in the United States: A Population-Based Study. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 32, 833-842. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.22454
Courtois, A. C., & Ford, J. D. (2009). Treating Complex Traumatic Stress Disorder. New York: The Guilford Press.
Ertan, D., El-Hage, W., Thieree, S., Javelot, H., & Hingray, C. (2020). COVID-19: Urgency for Distancing from Domestic Violence. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 11, Article No. 1800245. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2020.1800245
Ford, J. D., Courtois, A. C., van der Hart, O., & Nijenhuis, E. R. S. (2005). Treatment of Complex Posttraumatic Self-Dysregulation. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 18, 437-447. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.20051
Graham-Harrison, E., Guilffrida, A., Smith, H., & Ford, L. (2020). Lockdowns around the World Bring Rise in Domestic Violence. The Guardian.
Green, T., Harju-Steppanen, J., Adeniji, M. et al. (2021). Predictors and Rates of PTSD, Depression and Anxiety in UK Frontline Health and Social Care Workers during COVID-19. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 12, Article No. 1882781. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2021.1882781
Groves, M. S., & Muskin, P. R. (2005). Chapter 5. Psychological Responses to illness. In J. L. Levenson (Ed.), Textbook of Psychosomatic Medicine (pp. 67-88). Washington DC: American Psychiatric Publishing.
Herman, J. (1992). Trauma and Recovery. New York: Basic Books.
Holmes, T. (1978). Life Situations, Emotions, and Disease. Psychosomatic Medicine, 19, 747-754. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0033-3182(78)70891-1
Hyland, P., Shelvin, M., McBride, O., Murphy, J. et al. (2020). Anxiety and Depression in the Republic of Ireland during the COVID-19 Pandemic. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 3, 249-256. https://doi.org/10.1111/acps.13219
Javakhishvili, D. J., Ardino, V., Bragesjo, M., Kazlauskas, E., Olff, M., & Shafer, I. (2020). Trauma-Informed Responses in Addressing Public Mental Health Consequences of the COVID-19 Pandemic: Position Paper of the European Society for Traumatic Stress Studies (ESTSS). European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 11, Article No. 1780782. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2020.1780782
Karatzias, T., Shevlin, M., Murphy, J., McBride, O. et al. (2020). Posttraumatic Stress Symptoms and Associated Comorbidity during the COVID-19 Pandemic in Ireland: A Population-Based Study. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 33, 365-370. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.22565
Levenson, J. L., & Schneider, R. K. (2005). Chapter 27. Infectious Diseases. In J. L. Levenson (Ed.), Textbook of Psychosomatic Medicine (pp. 577-598). Washington DC: American Psychiatric Publishing.
Rodriguez-Rey, R., Garrido-Hernansaiz, H., & Colaldo, S. (2020). Psychological Impact of COVID-19 in Spain: Early Data Report. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 12, 550-552. https://doi.org/10.1037/tra0000943
Rossi, R., Socci, V., Talevi, D. et al. (2021). Trauma-Spectrum Symptoms among the Italian General Population in the Time of the COVID-19 Outbreak. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 12, Article No. 1855888. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2020.1855888
Stober, D. R., Schwartz, J. A. J. et al. (1997). Depression and HIV Disease: Prevalence, Correlates, and Treatment. Psychiatric Annals, 27, 372-377. https://doi.org/10.3928/0048-5713-19970501-14
Tucci, V., Moukaddam, N., Meadows, J. et al. (2017). The Forgotten Plague: Psychiatric Manifestations of Ebola, Zika, and Emerging Infectious Diseases. Journal of Global Infectious Diseases, 9, 151-156. https://doi.org/10.4103/jgid.jgid_66_17
WHO (2018). International Statistical Classification of Disease and Related Health Problems (ICD-11). Geneva: World Health Organization. https://doi.org/10.1071/SH17086
WHO (2020). COVID-19 Briefings. Geneva: World Health Organization. https://www.who.int/
Zepinic, V. (2001). Chapter 14. Suicidal Risk in War-Related PTSD. In B. Raphael, & A. E. Malak (Eds.), Diversity and Mental Health Challenging Times (pp. 212-221). Sydney: TCMHC.
Zepinic, V. (2015). Persistence of “Survival Skills” as a Risk Factor for Suicide in Severely Traumatised Individuals. International Journal of Emergency Mental Health and Human Resilience, 17, 552-558.
Zepinic, V. (2017). Disintegration of the Self-Structure Caused by Severe Trauma. Psychology and Behavioural Sciences, 5, 83-92. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.pbs.20160504.12
Zepinic, V. (2019). The Self and Complex Trauma (2nd ed.). London: Austin Macauley Publishing.
Zepinic, V. (2021). Complex Trauma Syndrome: Concept and Therapy. London: Austin Macauley Publishing. (In Print)