The aim of the present study was to develop a method of measuring indirect attitudes with the use of causal attributions of behavior described in scenarios. For this purpose, three experiments were conducted. In all three experiments scenarios were manipulated in such a way that four different types of scenarios were created (Swedish male, Swedish woman, foreign man and foreign woman). The participants made estimations of explanatory likelihood for causal explanations that were reported on 100 mm Visual Analog Scales (VAS). In all three experiments, the manipulations resulted in significant effects indicating negative indirect attitudes to foreigners compared to Swedes.
Brendl, C. M., Markman, A. B., & Messner, C. (2001). How Do Indirect Measures of Evaluation Work: Evaluating the Inference of Prejudice in the Implicit Associaton Test. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 81, 760-773. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.81.5.760
Charlesworth, T. E., & Banaji, M. R. (2019). Patterns of Implicit and Explicit Attitudes: I. Long-Term Change and Stability from 2007 to 2016. Psychological Science, 30, 174-192. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797618813087
de Paula Couto, M. C. P., & Wentura, D. (2017). The Go/No-Go Priming Task: Automatic Evaluation and Categorisation beyond Response Interference. Cognition and Emotion, 31, 892-911. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2016.1179625
Fazio, R. H., & Olson, M. A. (2003). Implicit Measures in Social Cognition Research: Their Meaning and Use. Annual Review of Psychology, 54, 297-327. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.54.101601.145225
Fiske, S. T., & Taylor, S. E. (1991). Social Cognition (2nd ed.). McGraw-Hill.
Greenwald, A. G., & Krieger, L. H. (2006). Implicit Bias: Scientific Foundations. California Law Review, 94, 945-967. https://doi.org/10.2307/20439056
Greenwald, A. G., McGhee, D. E., & Schwartz, J. L. (1998). Measuring Individual Differences in Implicit Cognition: The Implicit Association Test. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 1464-1480. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.74.6.1464
Greenwald, A. G., Poehlman, T. A., Uhlmann, E. L., & Banaji, M. R. (2009). Understanding and Using the Implicit Association Test: III. Meta-Analysis of Predictive Validity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 97, 17-41. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0015575
Johnson, I. R., Petty, R. E., Briñol, P., & See, Y. H. M. (2017). Persuasive Message Scrutiny as a Function of Implicit-Explicit Discrepancies in Racial Attitudes. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 70, 222-234. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2016.11.007
Johnson, R. E., & Saboe, K. N. (2011). Measuring Implicit Traits in Organizational Research: Development of an Indirect Measure of Employee Implicit Self-Concept. Organizational Research Methods, 14, 530-547. https://doi.org/10.1177/1094428110363617
Judge, T. A., Weiss, H. M., Kammeyer-Mueller, J. D., & Hulin, C. L. (2017). Job Attitudes, Job Satisfaction, and Job Affect: A Century of Continuity and of Change. Journal of Applied Psychology, 102, 356-374. https://doi.org/10.1037/apl0000181
Karpinski, A., & Steinman, R. B. (2006). The Single Category Implicit Association Test as a Measure of Implicit Social Cognition. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 91, 16-32. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.91.1.16
Kelley, H. H. (1967). Attribution Theory in Social Psychology. In D. Levine (Ed.), Nebraska Symposium on Motivation (Vol. 15, pp. 192-238). University of Nebraska Press.
Kraus, S. J. (1995). Attitudes and the Prediction of Behavior: A Meta-Analysis of the Empirical Literature. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 21, 58-75. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167295211007
Ksiazkiewicz, A., & Hedrick, J. (2013). An Introduction to Implicit Attitudes in Political Science Research. PS: Political Science & Politics, 46, 525-531. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1049096513000632
Kurdi, B., Seitchik, A. E., Axt, J. R., Carroll, T. J., Karapetyan, A., Kaushik, N., & Banaji, M. R. (2018). Relationship between the Implicit Association Test and Intergroup Behavior: A Meta-Analysis. American Psychologist, 74, 769-586. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000364
Leavitt, K., Fong, C. T., & Greenwald, A. G. (2011). Asking about Well-Being Gets You Half an Answer: Intra-Individual Processes of Implicit and Explicit Job Attitudes. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 32, 672-687. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.746
Lemm, K. M., Lane, K. A., Sattler, D. N., Khan, S. R., & Nosek, B. A. (2008). Assessing Implicit Cognitions with a Paper-Format Implicit Association Test. In M. A. Morrison, & T. G. Morrison (Eds.), The Psychology of Modern Prejudice (pp. 121-146). Nova Science Publishers.
Lindgren, K. P., Neighbors, C., Gasser, M. L., Ramirez, J. J., & Cvencek, D. (2017). A Review of Implicit and Explicit Substance Self-Concept as a Predictor of Alcohol and Tobacco Use and Misuse. The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse, 43, 237-246. https://doi.org/10.1080/00952990.2016.1229324
Nosek, B. A., & Banaji, M. R. (2001). The Go/No-Go Association Task. Social Cognition, 19, 625-666. https://doi.org/10.1521/soco.19.6.625.20886
Payne, B. K., Krosnick, J. A., Pasek, J., Lelkes, Y., Akhtar, O., & Tompson, T. (2010). Implicit and Explicit Prejudice in the 2008 American Presidential Election. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 46, 367-374. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2009.11.001
Pettigrew, T. F. (1979). The Ultimate Attribution Error: Extending Allport’s Cognitive Analysis of Prejudice. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 5, 461-476. https://doi.org/10.1177/014616727900500407
Scherer, L. D., & Lambert, A. J. (2012). Implicit Race Bias Revisited: On the Utility of Task Context in Assessing Implicit Attitude Strength. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 48, 366-370. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2011.06.010
Schoen, L. M., Ciofalo, E., & Rudow, E. (1989). Anagram versus Word-Fragment Solution: A Comparison of Implicit-Memory Measures. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society, 27, 551-552. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03334666
Spence, A., & Townsend, E. (2007). Predicting Behaviour towards Genetically Modified Food Using Implicit and Explicit Attitudes. British Journal of Social Psychology, 46, 437-457. https://doi.org/10.1348/014466606X152261
Vargas, P. T., Sekaquaptewa, D., & von Hippel, W. (2007). Armed Only with Paper and Pencil: “Low-Tech” Measures of Implicit Attitudes. In B. Wittenbrink, & N. Schwarz (Eds.), Implicit Measures of Attitudes (pp. 103-124). The Guilford Press.
Werner, K. M., & Milyavskaya, M. (2019). Motivation and Self-Regulation: The Role of Want-To Motivation in the Processes Underlying Self-Regulation and Self-Control. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 13, Article ID: e12425. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12425
Wittenbrink, B., Judd, C. M., & Park, B. (1997). Evidence for Racial Prejudice at the Implicit Level and Its Relationship with Questionnaire Measures. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72, 262-274. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.72.2.262
Yoshida, E., Peach, J. M., Zanna, M. P., & Spencer, S. J. (2012). Not All Automatic Associations Are Created Equal: How Implicit Normative Evaluations Are Distinct from Implicit Attitudes and Uniquely Predict Meaningful Behavior. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 48, 694-706. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2011.09.013