Predictive Effect of Extraversion and Neuroticism on Mental Health during the Covid-19 Pandemic in Hong Kong: The Mediating Role of Coping Strategies — Oak Academic Publishing
Research ArticleOpen AccessGoogle Scholar indexed
Predictive Effect of Extraversion and Neuroticism on Mental Health during the Covid-19 Pandemic in Hong Kong: The Mediating Role of Coping Strategies
The present study investigated the predictive effect of extraversion and neuroticism on mental health among the Hongkongers during the third wave of Covid-19 pandemic, with coping style as a potential mediator. Particularly, a mediation model between personality traits of extraversion and neuroticism, coping strategies and mental health was constructed within the framework of the personality-coping-outcome theory. A sample of 170 participants completed an online questionnaire containing preliminary demographic questions, Coping Strategy Indicator, General Health Questionnaire, and Eysenck Personality Questionnaire Brief Version. Results of the mediation analysis indicate that neuroticism can directly affect the psychological well-being of Hongkongers during the pandemic, and have indirect effect (with an effect size of 28.45%) on individual mental health through the mediation of the coping strategy “avoidance”. The other two coping strategies, namely “problem solving” and “seeking social support”, do not play any role in the mediation process. Moreover, significant mediating effect of these three coping strategies is absent in the relationship between extraversion and mental health.
KeywordsExtraversionNeuroticismStressMental HealthCoping Strategy IndicatorGeneral Health QuestionnaireEysenck Personality Questionnaire Brief Ver-sionMediation AnalysisPersonality-Coping-Outcome Theory
Abbasi, I. S. (2016). The Role of Neuroticism in the Maintenance of Chronic Baseline Stress Perception and Negative Affect. Spanish Journal of Psychology, 19, Article No. E9. https://doi.org/10.1017/sjp.2016.7
Agbaria, Q., & Mokh, A. A. (2021). Coping with Stress during the Coronavirus Outbreak: The Contribution of Big Five Personality Traits and Social Support. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 20, 1854-1872. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11469-021-00486-2
Aldao, A., Nolen-Heoksema, S., & Schweizer, S. (2010). Emotion-Regulation Strategies across Psychopathology: A Meta-Analytic Review. Clinical Psychology Review, 30, 217-237. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2009.11.004
Amirkhan, J. H. (1990). A Factor Analytically Derived Measure of Coping: The Coping Strategy Indicator. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59, 1066-1074. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.59.5.1066
Aspinwall, L. G., & Taylor, S. E. (1992). Modeling Cognitive Adaptation: A Longitudinal Investigation of the Impact of Individual Differences and Coping on College Adjustment and Performance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 63, 989-1003. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.63.6.989
Baker, R. W., & Siryk, B. (1989). Student Adaptation to College Questionnaire Manual. Western Psychological Services.
Bakhla, A. K., Verma, V., Hembram, M., Praharaj, S. K., & Sinha, V. K. (2013). Internal Consistency and Factor Structure of, 12-Item General Health Questionnaire in Visually Impaired Students. Industrial Psychiatry Journal, 22, 109-113. https://doi.org/10.4103/0972-6748.132918
Barlow, D. H., Harris, B. A., Eustis, E. H., & Farchione, T. J. (2020). The Unified Protocal for Transdiagnostic Treatment of Emotional Disorders. World Psychiatry, 19, 245-246. https://doi.org/10.1002/wps.20748
Boudouda, N. E., & Gana, K. (2020). Neuroticism, Conscientiousness and Extraversion Interact to Predict Depression: A Confirmation in a Non-Western Culture. Personality and Individual Difference, 167, Article ID: 110219. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110219
Boyes, M. E., & French, D. J. (2010). Neuroticism, Stress, and Coping in the Context of an Anagram-Solving Task. Personality and Individual Differences, 49, 380-385. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2010.04.001
Bucher, M. A., Suzuki, T., & Samuel, D. B. (2019). A Meta-Analytic Review of Personality Traits and Their Associations with Mental Health Treatment Outcomes. Clinical Psychology Review, 70, 51-63. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2019.04.002
Carver, C. S., & Connor-Smith, J. (2010). Personality and Coping. Annual Review of Psychology, 61, 679-704. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.093008.100352
Carver, C. S., Scheier, M. F., & Weintraub, J. K. (1989). Assessing Coping Strategies: A Theoretically Based Approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56, 267-283. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.56.2.267
Chan, H. M. (2020, February 17). Two Arrested After Armed Gang Makes Run for Toilet Rolls in HK$1,600 Heist as Coronavirus Panic Shows No Signs of Easing. South China Morning Post.
Choi, E. P. H., Hui, B. P. H., & Wan, E. Y. F. (2020). Depression and Anxiety in Hong Kong during Covid-19. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17, Article No. 3740. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17103740
Compas, B. E., Connor-Smith, J. K., Saltzman, H., Thomsen, A. H., & Wadsworth, M. E. (2001). Coping with Stress during Childhood and Adolescence: Problems, Progress, and Potential in Theory and Research. Psychological Bulletin, 127, 87-127. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.127.1.87
Connor-Smith, J. K., & Flachsbart, C. (2007). Relations between Personality and Coping: A Meta-Analysis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 93, 1080-1107. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.93.6.1080
Costa, P. T. Jr., Somerfield, M. R., & McCrae, R. R. (1996). Personality and Coping: A Reconceptualization. In M. Zeidner, & N. S. Endler (Eds.), Handbook of Coping: Theory, Research, Applications (pp. 44-61). John Wiley & Sons.
Dakof, G. A., & Taylor, S. E. (1990). Victims’ Perceptions of Social Support: What Is Helpful From Whom? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 58, 80-89. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.58.1.80
David, J. P., & Suls, J. (1999). Coping Efforts in Daily Life: Role of Big Five Traits and Problem Appraisals. Journal of Personality, 67, 265-294. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-6494.00056
del Pilar Sánchez-López, M., & Dresch, V. (2008). The 12-Item General Health Questionnaire (GHQ-12): Reliability, External Validity and Factor Structure in the Spanish Population. Psicothema, 20, 839-843.
DeLongis, A., & Holtzman, S. (2005). Coping in Context: The Role of Stress, Social Support, and Personality in Coping. Journal of Personality, 73, 1633-1656. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2005.00361.x
Desmond, D. M., Shevlin, M., & MacLachlan, M. (2006). Dimensional Analysis of the Coping Strategy Indicator in a Sample of Elderly Veterans with Acquired Limb Amputations. Personality and Individual Differences, 40, 249-259. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2005.04.015
Dumitru, V. M., & Cozman, D. (2012). The Relationship between Stress and Personality Factors. Human and Veterinary Medicine, 4, 34-39.
Dyson, R., & Renk, K. (2006). Freshmen Adaptation to University Life: Depressive Symptoms, Stress and Coping. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 62, 1231-1244. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.20295
Felix, G. (2021). Mediating Effect of Coping Strategies between Personality and Anxiety during Covid-19. International Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 14, 225-231.
Fukase, Y., Ichikura, K., Murase, H., & Tagaya, H. (2022). Age-Related Differences in Depressive Symptoms and Coping Strategies during the Covid-19 Pandemic in Japan: A Longitudinal Study. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 155, Article ID: 110737. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychores.2022.110737
Gallagher, D. J. (1996). Personality, Coping, and Objective Outcomes: Extraversion, Neuroticism, Coping Styles, and Academic Performance. Personality and Individual Differences, 21, 421-429. https://doi.org/10.1016/0191-8869(96)00085-2
Gaylord-Harden, N. K., & Cunningham, J. A. (2009). The Impact of Racial Discrimination and Coping Strategies on Internalizing Symptoms in African American Youth. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 38, 532-543. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-008-9377-5
Gerdes, H. (1988). The Development Adult (2nd ed.). Butterworths.
Goldberg, D. P. et al. (1997). The Validity of Two Versions of the GHq in the WHO Study of Mental Illness in General Health Care. Psychological Medicine, 27, 191-197. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291796004242
Goldberg, D. P., & Williams, J. E. (1992). A User’s Guide to the General Health Questionnaire. NFER-Nelson.
Goldberg, D. P., Oldehinkel, T., & Ormel, J. (1998). Why GHQ Threshold Varies From One Place to Another. Psychological Medicine, 28, 915-921-332. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291798006874
Goodwin, R., & Engstrom, G. (2002). Personality and the Perception of Health in the General Population. Psychological Medicine, 32, 325. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291701005104
Gori, A., Topino, E., Palazzeschi, L., & Di Fabio, A. (2021). Which Personality Traits Can Mitigate the Impact of the Pandemic? Assessment of the Relationship Between Personality Traits and Traumatic Events in the COVID-19 Pandemic as Mediated By Defense Mechanisms. PLOS ONE, 16, e0251984. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0251984
Halamandaris, K. F., & Power, K. G. (1999). Individual Differences, Social Support and Coping with the Examination Stress: A Study of the Psychological and Academic Adjustment of First Year Home Students. Personality and Individual Differences, 26, 665-685. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(98)00172-X
Hammack, P. L., Richards, M. H., Luo, Z., Edlynn, E. S., & Roy, K. (2004). Social Support Factors as Moderators of Community Violence Exposure Among Inner-City African American Young Adolescents. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 33, 450-462. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15374424jccp3303_3
Hampshire, A., Hellyer, P. J., Soreq, E., Mehta, M. A., Ioannidis, K., Trender, W. et al. (2021). Associations between Dimensions of Behavior, Personality Traits and Mental Health during the Covid-19 Pandemic in the United Kingdom. Nature Communications, 12, Article No. 4111. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-021-24365-5
Hankin, B. L., Stone, L., & Wright, P. A. (2010). Corumination, Interpersonal Stress Generation, and Internalizing Symptoms: Accumulating Effects and Transactional Influences in a Multiwave Study of Adolescents. Development and Psychopathology, 22, 217-235. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579409990368
Hankins, M. (2008). The Reliability of the Twelve-Item General Health Questionnaire (GHQ-12) Under Realistic Assumptions. BMC Public Health, 8, Article No. 355. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-8-355
Hayes, A. (2018). Introduction to Mediation, Moderation and Conditional Process Analysis: A Regression-Based Approach (2nd ed.). The Guilford Press.
Holahan, C. J., Moos, R. H., Holahan, C., Brennan, P. L., & Schutte, K. (2005). Stress Generation, Avoidance Coping, and Depressive Symptoms: A, 10-Year Model. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 73, 658-666. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.73.4.658
Hooker, K., Frazier, L. D., & Monahan, D. J. (1994). Personality and Coping among Caregivers of Spouses with Dementia. The Gerontologist, 34, 386-392. https://doi.org/10.1093/geront/34.3.386
Jeglic, E. L., Pepper, C. M., Vanderhoff, H. A., & Ryabchenko, K. A. (2007). An Analysis of Suicidal Ideation in a College Sample. Archives of Suicide Research, 11, 41-56. https://doi.org/10.1080/13811110600897176
Jurblum, M., Ng, C. H., & Castle, D. J. (2020). Psychological Consequences of Social Isolation and Quarantine: Issues Related to Covid-19 Restrictions. Australian Journal of General Practice, 49, 778-783. https://doi.org/10.31128/AJGP-06-20-5481
Jylhä, P., & Isometsä, E. (2006). The Relationship of Neuroticism and Extraversion to Symptoms of Anxiety and Depression in the General Population. Depression and Anxiety, 23, 281-289. https://doi.org/10.1002/da.20167
Karimzade, A., & Besharat, M. A. (2011). An Investigation of the Relationship Between Personality Dimensions and Stress Coping Styles. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 30, 797-802. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2011.10.155
Kendler, K. S., Gatz, M., Gardner, C. O., & Pedersen, N. L. (2006). Personality and Major Depression: A Swedish Longitudinal, Population-Based Twin Study. Archives of General Psychiatry, 63, 1113-1120. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.63.10.1113
Kim, M. R., & Han, S. J. (2015). A Study of Emotional Intelligence and Coping Strategies in Baccalaureate Nursing Students. International Journal of Bioscience and Biotechnology, 7, 275-282. https://doi.org/10.14257/ijbsbt.2015.7.3.29
Kim, Y. J., Cho, M. J., Park, S., Hong, J. P., Sohn, J. H., Bae, J. N. et al. (2013). The, 12-Item General Health Questionnaire as an Effective Mental Health Screening Tool for General Korean Adult Population. Psychiatry Investigation, 10, 352-358. https://doi.org/10.4306/pi.2013.10.4.352
Kotov, R., Gámez, W., Schmidt, F. L., & Watson, D. (2010). Linking “Big” Personality Traits to Anxiety, Depressive, and Substance Use Disorders: A Meta-Analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 136, 768-821. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0020327
Lamers, S. M., Westerhof, G. J., Kovács, V., & Bohlmeijer, E. T. (2012). Differential Relationships in the Association of the Big Five Personality Traits with Positive Mental Health and Psychopathology. Journal of Research in Personality, 46, 517-524. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2012.05.012
Landis, D., Gaylord-Harden, N. K., Malinowski, S. L., Grant, K. E., Carleton, R. A., & Ford, R. E. (2007). Urban Adolescent Stress and Hopelessness. Journal of Adolescence, 30, 1051-1070. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2007.02.001
Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, Appraisal and Coping. Springer.
Lee-Baggley, D., Preece, M., & Delongis, A. (2005). Coping with Interpersonal Stress: Role of Big Five Traits. Journal of Personality, 73, 1141-1180. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2005.00345.x
Leong, F. T. L., Bonz, M. H., & Zachar, P. (1997). Coping Styles as Predictors of College Adjustment among Freshmen. Counselling Psychology Quarterly, 10, 211-220. https://doi.org/10.1080/09515079708254173
Li, M. H. (2014). Effect of Stress, Perception-Related Traits, and Motivation on Different Coping Strategies. International Journal of Humanities and Social Science, 4, 7-16.
Liang, Y., Wang, L., & Yin, X. (2016). The Factor Structure of the 12-Item General Health Questionnaire (GHQ-12) In Young Chinese Civil Servants. Health and Quality of Life Outcomes, 14, Article No. 136. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12955-016-0539-y
Lo, C. F. (2017). Stress and Coping Strategies among University Freshmen in Hong Kong: Validation of the Coping Strategy Indicator. Psychology, 8, 1254-1266. https://doi.org/10.4236/psych.2017.88081
Luyckx, K., Klimstra, T. A., Duriez, B., Schwartz, S. J., & Vanhalst, J. (2012). Identity Processes and Coping Strategies in College Students: Short-Term Longitudinal Dynamics and the Role of Personality. Journal of Youth Adolescence, 41, 1226-1239. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-012-9753-z
McNamara, S. (2000). Stress in Young People: What’s New and What Can We Do? Continuum.
O’Brien, T. B., & DeLongis, A. (1996). The Interactional Context of Problem-, Emotion- and Relationship-Focused Coping: The Role of the Big Five Personality Factors. Journal of Personality, 64, 775-813. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.1996.tb00944.x
Otonari, J., Nagano, J., Morita, M., Budhathoki, S., Tashiro, N., Toyomura, K. et al. (2012). Neuroticism and Extraversion Personality Traits, Health Behaviours, and Subjective Well-Being: The Fukuoka Study (Japan). Quality of Life Research, 21, 1847-1855. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11136-011-0098-y
Park, C. L., & Adler, N. E. (2003). Coping Style as a Predictor of Health and Well-Being across the First Year of Medical School. Health Psychology, 22, 627-631. https://doi.org/10.1037/0278-6133.22.6.627
Penley, J. A., & Tomaka, J. (2002). Associations among the Big Five, Emotional Responses, and Coping with Acute Stress. Personality and Individual Differences, 32, 1215-1228. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(01)00087-3
Penley, J. A., Tomaka, J., & Wiebe, J. S. (2002). The Association of Coping to Physical and Psychological Health Outcomes: A Meta-Analytic Review. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 25, 551-603. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1020641400589
Poropat, A. E. (2009). A Meta-Analysis of the Five-Factor Model of Personality and Academic Performance. Psychological Bulletin, 135, 322-338. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0014996
Preece, M., & DeLongis, A. (2005). A Contextual Examination of Stress and Coping Processes in Stepfamilies. In T. A. Revenson, K. Kayser, & G. Bodenmann (Eds.), Couples Coping with Stress: Emerging Perspectives on Dyadic Coping (pp. 51-69).
Rettew, D. C. et al. (2021). Personality Trait Predictors of Adjustment during the Covid Pandemic among College Students. PLOS ONE, 16, Article ID: e0248895. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0248895
Roesch, S., Wee, C., & Vaughn, A. A. (2006). Relations between the Big Five Personality Traits and Dispositional Coping in Korean Americans: Acculturation as a Moderating Factor International Journal of Psychology, 41, 85-96. https://doi.org/10.1080/00207590544000112
Rose, A. J., Carlson, W., & Waller, E. M. (2007). Prospective Associations of Co-Rumination with Friendship and Emotional Adjustment: Considering the Socioemotional Trade-Offs of Co-Rumination. Developmental Psychology, 43, 1019-1031. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.43.4.1019
Rossi, C., Bonanomi, A., & Oasi, O. (2021). Psychological Wellbeing during the Covid-19 Pandemic: The Influence of Personality Traits in the Italian Population. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18, Article No. 5862. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18115862
Sandler, I. N., Tein, J. Y., & West, S. G. (1994). Coping, Stress, and the Psychological Symptoms of Children of Divorce: A Cross-Sectional and Longitudinal Study. Child Development, 65, 1744-1763. https://doi.org/10.2307/1131291
Sato, T. (2005). The Eysenck Personality Questionnaire Brief Version: Factor Structure and Reliability. The Journal of Psychology, 139, 545-552. https://doi.org/10.3200/JRLP.139.6.545-552
Shokrkon, A., & Nicoladis, E. (2021). How Personality Traits of Neuroticism and Extroversion Predict the Effects of the Covid-19 on the Mental Health of Canadians. PLOS ONE, 16, Article ID: e0251097. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0251097
Simmons, N., & Hay, I. (2010). Early Adolescents’ Friendship Patterns in Middle School: Social-Emotional and Academic Implications. The Australian Educational and Developmental Psychologist, 27, 59-69. https://doi.org/10.1375/aedp.27.2.59
Siu, J. (2021, March 11). Coronavirus: Hong Kong Trio Jailed Over Bizarre Toilet Roll Theft Committed as Covid-19 Panic Buying Swept City. South China Morning Post.
Spangenberg, J. J., & Orpen-Lyall, M. R. (2000). Stress and Coping Strategies in a Sample of South African Managers Involved in Post-Graduate Managerial Studies. Journal of Industrial Psychology, 26, Article No. a692. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajip.v26i1.692
Thoits, P. A. (2011). Mechanisms Linking Social Ties and Support to Physical and Mental Health. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 52, 145-161. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022146510395592
Tso, I. F., & Park, S. (2020). Alarming Levels of Psychiatric Symptoms and the Role of Loneliness during the Covid-19 Epidemic: A Case Study of Hong Kong. Psychiatry Research, 293, Article ID: 113423. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2020.113423
Uchino, B. N. (2006). Social Support and Health: A Review of Physiological Processes Potentially Underlying Links to Disease Outcomes. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 29, 377-387. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10865-006-9056-5
Vélez, C. E., Krause, E. D., McKinnon, A., Brunwasser, S. M., Freres, D.R., Abenavoli, R. M. et al. (2016). Social Support Seeking and Early Adolescent Depression and Anxiety Symptoms: The Moderating Role of Rumination. Journal of Early Adolescence, 36, 1118-1143. https://doi.org/10.1177/0272431615594460
Vollrath, M., & Torgersen, S. (2000). Personality Types and Coping. Personality and Individual Differences, 29, 367-378. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(99)00199-3
Wang, C., Havewala, M., & Zhu, Q. (2022). Covid-19 Stressful Life Events and Mental Health: Personality and Coping Styles as Moderators. Journal of American College Health, 26, 1-10. https://doi.org/10.1080/07448481.2022.2066977
Wang, T., Guo, L., & Bashir, M. (2021). Assessing Individual Differences in Coping Mechanisms during the COVID-19 Pandemic. In Proceedings of 5th International Conference on Medical and Health Informatics (ICMHI 2021) (pp. 215-219). Association for Computing Machinery. https://doi.org/10.1145/3472813.3473193
Wang, W., & Miao, D. (2009). The Relationships among Coping Styles, Personality Traits and Mental Health of Chinese Medical Students. Social Behavior and Personality: An International Journal, 37, 163-172. https://doi.org/10.2224/sbp.2009.37.2.163
Wei, M. (2020). Social Distancing and Lockdown—An Introvert’s Paradise? An Empirical Investigation on the Association between Introversion and the Psychological Impact of Covid19-Related Circumstantial Changes. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, Article ID: 561609. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.561609
Williams, S. N., Armitage, C. J., Tampe, T., & Dienes, K. (2020). Public Perceptions and Experiences of Social Distancing and Social Isolation during the Covid-19 Pandemics: A UK-Based Focus Group Study. BMJ Open, 10, Article ID: e039334. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2020-039334
Xu, L., Liu, R. D., Ding, Y., Mou, X., Wang, J., & Liu, Y. (2017). The Mediation Effect of Coping Style on the Relations between Personality and Life Satisfaction in Chinese Adolescents. Frontiers in Psychology, 8, Article No. 1076. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01076
Yu, T., & Hu, J. (2022). Extraversion and Neuroticism on College Freshmen’s Depressive Symptoms during the COVID-19 Pandemic: The Mediating Role of Social Support. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 13, Article ID: 822699. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2022.822699
Zainah, M., Wong, J. Y. H., Luk, T. T., Wai, A. K. C., Lam, T. H., & Wang, M. P. (2019). Adult Personality and Its Relationship with Stress Level and Coping Mechanism among Final Year Medical Students. Medicine & Health, 14, 154-167. https://doi.org/10.17576/MH.2019.1402.14
Zhao, S. Z., Luk, T. T., Wu, Y., Weng, X., Wong, J. Y. H., Wang, M. P. et al. (2021). Factors Associated with Mental Health Symptoms during the Covid-19 Pandemic in Hong Kong. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 12, Article ID: 617397. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2021.617397
Zhao, S. Z., Wong, J. Y. H., Luk, T. T., Wai, A. K. C., Lam, T. H., & Wang, M. P. (2020a). Mental Health Crisis under Covid-19 Pandemic in Hong Kong, China. International Journal of Infectious Diseases, 100, 431-433. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijid.2020.09.030
Zhao, S. Z., Wong, J. Y. H., Wu, Y., Choi, E. P. H., Wang, M. P., & Lam, T. H. (2020b). Social Distancing Compliance under Covid-19 Pandemic and Mental Health Impacts: A Population-Based Study. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17, Article No. 6692. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17186692
Zulkefly, N. S., & Baharudin, R. (2010). Using the 12-Item General Health Questionnaire (GHQ-12) to Assess the Psychological Health of Malaysian College Students. Global Journal of Health Science, 2, 73-80. https://doi.org/10.5539/gjhs.v2n1p73