Impaired Recognition of Emotional Facial Expressions in Adults with Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: A Review of Event Related Potential (ERP) Studies — Oak Academic Publishing
Research ArticleOpen AccessGoogle Scholar indexed
Impaired Recognition of Emotional Facial Expressions in Adults with Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: A Review of Event Related Potential (ERP) Studies
Department of Psychology, The Max Stern Academic College of Emek Yezreel, Emek Yezreel, Israel
,
Department of Psychology, The Max Stern Academic College of Emek Yezreel, Emek Yezreel, Israel
1 Department of Psychology, The Max Stern Academic College of Emek Yezreel, Emek Yezreel, Israel
2 Department of Psychology, The Max Stern Academic College of Emek Yezreel, Emek Yezreel, Israel
Background: The link between attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and impaired recognition of emotional facial expressions is well documented. The cause for this impairment is, however, unclear. Some studies suggest that it may be due to deficits in emotional processing, while others attribute it to inattention. Purpose: This review examines the temporal evolution of the response of adults with ADHD to emotional facial expressions. The process is assessed using Event Related Potential (ERP), a technique that follows the response with millisecond resolution. Method: An integrated, systematic search of relevant databases based on the Whittemore and Knafl and the PRISMA 2020 review methodologies was applied. Ten studies met all the inclusion criteria. Results: Behavioral data (such as response time) confirm that adults with ADHD have some deficits in their ability to identify emotional facial expressions when compared to healthy controls. However, their degree of impairment varies with expression type. Analysis of the time-evolution of the response, as measured by ERP, shows that the response of adults with ADHD is heightened, when compared to healthy peers, in both initial and later stages. In the intermediate window, at approximately 300 ms, adults with ADHD show muted EPR amplitudes when compared to their healthy peers. The same time-evolution of response was observed for both emotional expressions and neutral ones. Conclusions: Overall, adults with ADHD display some level of impairment in their ability to recognize emotional facial expressions that is dependent on the expression valence. The time-evolution of the responses suggests the impairment might be linked to a lapse in attention at roughly 300 ms post-stimulus.
KeywordsAttention Deficit/Hyperactivity DisorderEvent Related PotentialEmotional Facial ExpressionsAdults
Aguado, L., Valdes-Conroy, B., Rodriguez, S., Roman, F. J., Dieguez-Risco, T., & Fernandez-Cahill, M. (2012). Modulation of Early Perceptual Processing by Emotional Expression and Acquired Valence of Faces an ERP Study. Journal of Psychophysiology, 26, 29-41. https://doi.org/10.1027/0269-8803/a000065
Alperin, B. R., Gustafsson, H., Smith, C., & Karalunas, S. L. (2017). The Relationship between Early and Late Event-Related Potentials and Temperament in Adolescents with and without ADHD. PLOS ONE, 12, e0180627. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0180627
Ashley, V., Vuilleumier, P., & Swick, D. (2004). Time Course and Specificity of Event-Related Potentials to Emotional Expressions. NeuroReport, 15, 211-216. https://doi.org/10.1097/00001756-200401190-00041
Baran Tatar, Z., Yargic, I., Oflaz, S., & Buyukgok, D. (2015). The Relationship between Emotion Recognition and the Symptoms of Attention Deficit and Impulsivity in Adult Patients with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Turk Psikiyatri Dergisi, 26, 172-180.
Barrett, L. F. (1998). Discrete Emotions or Dimensions? The Role of Valence Focus and Arousal Focus. Cognition & Emotion, 12, 579-599. https://doi.org/10.1080/026999398379574
Barry, R. J., Clarke, A. R., McCarthy, R., Selikowitz, M., Brown, C. R., & Heaven, P. C. L. (2009). Event-Related Potentials in Adults with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: An Investigation Using an Inter-Modal Auditory/visual Oddball Task. International Journal of Psychophysiology, 71, 124-131. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2008.09.009
Bisch, J., Kreifelts, B., Bretscher, J., Wildgruber, D., Fallgatter, A., & Ethofer, T. (2016). Emotion Perception in Adult Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. J Neural Transm (Vienna), 123, 961-970. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00702-016-1513-x
Blau, V. C., Maurer, U., Tottenham, N., & McCandliss, B. D. (2007). The Face-Specific N170 Component Is Modulated by Emotional Facial Expression. Behavioral and Brain Functions, 3, Article No. 7. https://doi.org/10.1186/1744-9081-3-7
Bora, E., & Pantelis, C. (2015). Meta-Analysis of Social Cognition in Attention-Deficit/ Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): Comparison with Healthy Controls and Autistic Spectrum Disorder. Psychological Medicine, 46, 699-716. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291715002573
Borhani, K., & Nejati, V. (2018). Emotional Face Recognition in Individuals Withattention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: A Review Article. Developmental Neuropsychology, 43, 256-277. https://doi.org/10.1080/87565641.2018.1440295
Cadesky, E. B., Mota, V. L., & Schachar, R. J. (2000). Beyond Words: How Do Children with ADHD And/or Conduct Problems Process Nonverbal Information About Affect? Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 39, 1160-1167. https://doi.org/10.1097/00004583-200009000-00016
Calvo, M. G., & Beltran, D. (2013). Recognition Advantage of Happy Faces: Tracing the Neurocognitive Processes. Neuropsychologia, 51, 2051-2060. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2013.07.010
Campanella, S., Bruyer, R., Froidbise, S., Rossignol, M., Joassin, F., Kornreich, C. et al. (2010). Is Two Better Than One? A Cross-Modal Oddball Paradigm Reveals Greater Sensitivity of the p300 to Emotional Face-Voice Associations. Clinical Neurophysiology, 121, 1855-1862. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clinph.2010.04.004
Conzelmann, A., Mucha, R. F., Jacob, C. P., Weyers, P., Romanos, J., Gerdes, A. B. M. et al. (2009). Abnormal Affective Responsiveness in Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: Subtype Differences. Biological Psychiatry, 65, 578-585. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2008.10.038
Corbett, B., & Glidden, H. (2000). Processing Affective Stimuli in Children with Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Child Neuropsychology, 6, 144-155. https://doi.org/10.1076/chin.6.2.144.7056
Demirci, E., & Erdogan, A. (2016). Is Emotion Recognition the Only Problem in ADHD? Effects of Pharmacotherapy on Face and Emotion Recognition in Children with ADHD. ADHD Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorders, 8, 197-204. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12402-016-0201-x
Ding, R., Li, P., Wang, W., & Luo, W. B. (2017). Emotion Processing by ERP Combined with Development and Plasticity. Neural Plasticity, 2017, Article ID: 5282670. https://doi.org/10.1155/2017/5282670
Dolcos, F., & Cabeza, R. (2002). Event-Related Potentials of Emotional Memory: Encoding Pleasant, Unpleasant, and Neutral Pictures. Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience, 2, 252-263. https://doi.org/10.3758/CABN.2.3.252
Eimer, M., & Holmes, A. (2002). An ERP Study on the Time Course of Emotional Face Processing. Neuroreport, 13, 427-431. https://doi.org/10.1097/00001756-200203250-00013
Eimer, M., & Holmes, A. (2007). Event-Related Brain Potential Correlates of Emotional Face Processing. Neuropsychologia, 45, 15-31. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2006.04.022
Eimer, M., Holmes, A., & McGlone, F. P. (2003). The Role of Spatial Attention in the Processing of Facial Expression: An ERP Study of Rapid Brain Responses to Six Basic Emotions. Cognitive Affective & Behavioral Neuroscience, 3, 97-110. https://doi.org/10.3758/CABN.3.2.97
Feuerriegel, D., Churches, O., Hofmann, J., & Keage, H. A. D. (2015). The N170 and Face Perception in Psychiatric and Neurological Disorders: A Systematic Review. Clinical Neurophysiology, 126, 1141-1158. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clinph.2014.09.015
Foti, D., Hajcak, G., & Dien, J. (2009). Differentiating Neural Responses to Emotional Pictures: Evidence from Temporal-Spatial PCA. Psychophysiology, 46, 521-530. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8986.2009.00796.x
Foti, D., Weinberg, A., Dien, J., & Hajcak, G. (2011). Event-Related Potential Activity in the Basal Ganglia Differentiates Rewards From Nonrewards: Temporospatial Principal Components Analysis and Source Localization of the Feedback Negativity. Human Brain Mapping, 32, 2207-2216. https://doi.org/10.1002/hbm.21182
Friedman, S. R., Rapport, L. J., Lumley, M., Tzelepis, A., VanVoorhis, A., Stettner, L., & Kakaati, L. (2003). Aspects of Social and Emotional Competence in Adult Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Neuropsychology, 17, 50-58. https://doi.org/10.1037/0894-4105.17.1.50
Goncalves, A. R., Fernandes, C., Pasion, R., Ferreira-Santos, F., Barbosa, F., & Marques-Teixeira, J. (2018). Effects of Age on the Identification of Emotions in Facial Expressions: A Meta-Analysis. Peerj, 6, e5278. https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.5278
Grane, V. A., Brunner, J. F., Endestad, T., Aasen, I. E. S., Kropotov, J., Knight, R. T., & Solbakk, A.-K. (2016). ERP Correlates of Proactive and Reactive Cognitive Control in Treatment-Naïve Adult ADHD. PLOS ONE, 11, e0159833. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0159833
Hajcak, G., Dunning, J. P., & Foti, D. (2009). Motivated and Controlled Attention to Emotion: Time-Course of the Late Positive Potential. Clinical Neurophysiology, 120, 505-510. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clinph.2008.11.028
Hajcak, G., MacNamara, A., & Olvet, D. M. (2010). Event-Related Potentials, Emotion, and Emotion Regulation: An Integrative Review. Developmental Neuropsychology, 35, 129-155. https://doi.org/10.1080/87565640903526504
Herrmann, M. J., Biehl, S. C., Jacob, C., & Deckert, J. (2010). Neurobiological and Psychophysiological Correlates of Emotional Dysregulation in ADHD Patients. ADHD Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorders, 2, 233-239. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12402-010-0047-6
Herrmann, M. J., Schreppel, T., Biehl, S. C., Jacob, C., Heine, M., Boreatti-Hümmer, A. et al. (2009). Emotional Deficits in Adult ADHD Patients: An ERP Study. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 4, 340-345. https://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nsp033
Hinojosa, J. A., Mercado, F., & Carretie, L. (2015). N170 Sensitivity to Facial Expression: A Meta-Analysis. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 55, 498-509. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2015.06.002
Holmes, A., Vuilleumier, P., & Eimer, M. (2003). The Processing of Emotional Facial Expression Is Gated by Spatial Attention: Evidence From Event-Related Brain Potentials. Cognitive Brain Research, 16, 174-184. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0926-6410(02)00268-9
Ibanez, A., Petroni, A., Urquina, H., Torrente, F., Torralva, T., Hurtado, E. et al. (2011). Cortical Deficits of Emotional Face Processing in Adults with ADHD: Its Relation to Social Cognition and Executive Function. Social Neuroscience, 6, 464-481. https://doi.org/10.1080/17470919.2011.620769
Kirouac, G., & Dore, F. Y. (1983). Accuracy and Latency o Judgment of Facial Expressions of Emotions. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 57, 683-686. https://doi.org/10.2466/pms.1983.57.3.683
Lassalle, A., & Itier, R. J. (2013). Fearful, Surprised, Happy, and Angry Facial Expressions Modulate Gaze-Oriented Attention: Behavioral and ERP Evidence. Social Neuroscience, 8, 583-600. https://doi.org/10.1080/17470919.2013.835750
Lawrence, K., Campbell, R., & Skuse, D. (2015). Age, Gender, and Puberty Influence the Development of Facial Emotion Recognition. Frontiers in Psychology, 6, Article No. 761. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.00761
Lennox, B. R., Jacob, R., Calder, A. J., Lupson, V., & Bullmore, E. T. (2004). Behavioural and Neurocognitive Responses to Sad Facial Affect Are Attenuated in Patients with Mania. Psychological Medicine, 34, 795-802. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291704002557
Leppanen, J. M., Kauppinen, P., Peltola, M. J., & Hietanen, J. K. (2007). Differential Electrocortical Responses to Increasing Intensities of Fearful and Happy Emotional Expressions. Brain Research, 1166, 103-109. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brainres.2007.06.060
Luo, W. B., Feng, W. F., He, W. Q., Wang, N. Y., & Luo, Y. J. (2010). Three Stages of Facial Expression Processing: ERP Study with Rapid Serial Visual Presentation. Neuroimage, 49, 1857-1867. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2009.09.018
Marchetta, N. D. J., Hurks, P. P. M., De Sonneville, L. M. J., Krabbendam, L., & Jolles, J. (2008). Sustained and Focused Attention Deficits in Adult ADHD. Journal of Attention Disorders, 11, 664-676. https://doi.org/10.1177/1087054707305108
Markovska-Simoska, S., & Pop-Jordanova, N. (2010). Face and Emotion Recognition by ADHD and Normal Adults. Acta Neuropsychologica, 8, 99-122.
Miller, M., Hanford, R. B., Fassbender, C., Duke, M., & Schweitzer, J. B. (2011). Affect Recognition in Adults with ADHD. Journal of Attention Disorders, 15, 452-460. https://doi.org/10.1177/1087054710368636
Naatanen, R., & Picton, T. W. (1986). N2 and Automatic versus Controlled Processes. Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology. Supplement, 38, 169-186.
Ochsner, K. N., Bunge, S. A., Gross, J. J., & Gabrieli, J. D. E. (2002). Rethinking Feelings: An fMRI Study of the Cognitive Regulation of Emotion. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 14, 1215-1229. https://doi.org/10.1162/089892902760807212
Olofsson, J. K., Nordin, S., Sequeira, H., & Polich, J. (2008). Affective Picture Processing: An Integrative Review of ERP Findings. Biological Psychology, 77, 247-265. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsycho.2007.11.006
Page, M. J., McKenzie, J. E., Bossuyt, P. M., Boutron, I., Hoffmann, T. C., Mulrow, C. D. et al. (2021). The PRISMA 2020 Statement: An Updated Guideline for Reporting Systematic Reviews. BMJ, 372, Article No. N71. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.n71
Pelc, K., Kornreich, C., Foisy, M. L., & Dan, B. (2006). Recognition of Emotional Facial Expressions in Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Pediatric Neurology, 35, 93-97. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pediatrneurol.2006.01.014
Phan, K. L., Wager, T., Taylor, S. F., & Liberzon, I. (2002). Functional Neuroanatomy of Emotion: A Meta-Analysis of Emotion Activation Studies in PET and fMRI. Neuroimage, 16, 331-348. https://doi.org/10.1006/nimg.2002.1087
Phelps, E. A., & LeDoux, J. E. (2005). Contributions of the Amygdala to Emotion Processing: From Animal Models to Human Behavior. Neuron, 48, 175-187. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2005.09.025
Pourtois, G., Grandjean, D., Sander, D., & Vuilleumier, P. (2004). Electrophysiological Correlates of Rapid Spatial Orienting Towards Fearful Faces. Cerebral Cortex, 14, 619-633. https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhh023
Rapport, L. J., Friedman, S. L., Tzelepis, A., & Van Voorhis, A. (2002). Experienced Emotion and Affect Recognition in Adult Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Neuropsychology, 16, 102-110. https://doi.org/10.1037/0894-4105.16.1.102
Raz, S., & Dan, O. (2015a). Altered Event-Related Potentials in Adults with ADHD During Emotional Faces Processing. Clinical Neurophysiology, 126, 514-523. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clinph.2014.06.023
Raz, S., & Dan, O. (2015b). Behavioral and Neural Correlates of Facial versus Nonfacial Stimuli Processing in Adults with ADHD: An ERP Study. Neuropsychology, 29, 726-738. https://doi.org/10.1037/neu0000176
Recio, G., Schacht, A., & Sommer, W. (2014). Recognizing Dynamic Facial Expressions of Emotion: Specificity and Intensity Effects in Event-Related Brain Potentials. Biological Psychology, 96, 111-125. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsycho.2013.12.003
Retz-Junginger, P., Giesen, L., Rosler, M., & Retz, W. (2016). Deficits in Facial Expression Recognition in Adult Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Psychiatrische Praxis, 43, 219-221. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0034-1387570
Romani, M., Vigliante, M., Faedda, N., Rossetti, S., Pezzuti, L., Guidetti, V., & Cardona, F. (2018). Face Memory and Face Recognition in Children and Adolescents with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: A Systematic Review. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 89, 1-12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2018.03.026
Rossion, B., Campanella, S., Gomez, C. M., Delinte, A., Debatisse, D., Liard, L. et al. (1999). Task Modulation of Brain Activity Related to Familiar and Unfamiliar Face Processing: An ERP Study. Clinical Neurophysiology, 110, 449-462. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1388-2457(98)00037-6
Rubia, K. (2018). Cognitive Neuroscience of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and Its Clinical Translation. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 12, Article No. 100. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2018.00100
Ruffman, T., Henry, J. D., Livingstone, V., & Phillips, L. H. (2008). A Meta-Analytic Review of Emotion Recognition and Aging: Implications for Neuropsychological Models of Aging. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 32, 863-881. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2008.01.001
Schönenberg, M., Schneidt, A., Wiedemann, E., & Jusyte, A. (2015). Processing of Dynamic Affective Information in Adults with ADHD. Journal of Attention Disorders, 23, 32-39. https://doi.org/10.1177/1087054715577992
Schulz, K. P., Bédard, A.-C. V., Fan, J., Clerkin, S. M., Dima, D., Newcorn, J. H., & Halperin, J. M. (2014). Emotional Bias of Cognitive Control in Adults with Childhood Attention-Deficit/hyperactivity Disorder. NeuroImage: Clinical, 5, 1-9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nicl.2014.05.016
Schupp, H. T., Junghofer, M., Weike, A. I., & Hamm, A. O. (2003). Attention and Emotion: An ERP Analysis of Facilitated Emotional Stimulus Processing. NeuroReport, 14, 1107-1110. https://doi.org/10.1097/00001756-200306110-00002
Schupp, H. T., Ohman, A., Junghofer, M., Weike, A. I., Stockburger, J., & Hamm, A. O. (2004). The Facilitated Processing of Threatening Faces: An ERP Analysis. Emotion, 4, 189-200. https://doi.org/10.1037/1528-3542.4.2.189
Shushakova, A., Ohrmann, P., & Pedersen, A. (2018). Exploring Deficient Emotion Regulation in Adult ADHD: Electrophysiological Evidence. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 268, 359-371. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00406-017-0826-6
Singh, S. D., Ellis, C. R., Winton, A. S. W., Singh, N. N., Leung, J. P., & Oswald, D. P. (1998). Recognition of Facial Expressions of Emotion by Children with Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Behavior Modification, 22, 128-142. https://doi.org/10.1177/01454455980222002
Sinzig, J., Morsch, D., & Lehmkuhl, G. (2008). Do Hyperactivity, Impulsivity and Inattention Have an Impact on the Ability of Facial Affect Recognition in Children with Autism and ADHD? European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 17, 63-72. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-007-0637-9
Tamm, L., Narad, M. E., Antonini, T. N., O’Brien, K. M., Hawk Jr., L. W., & Epstein, J. N. (2012). Reaction Time Variability in ADHD: A Review. Neurotherapeutics, 9, 500-508. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13311-012-0138-5
Tucha, L., Fuermaier, A. B. M., Koerts, J., Buggenthin, R., Aschenbrenner, S., Weisbrod, M. et al. (2017). Sustained Attention in Adult ADHD: Time-on-Task Effects of Various Measures of Attention. Journal of Neural Transmission, 124, S39-S53. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00702-015-1426-0
Uekermann, J., Kraemer, M., Abdel-Hamid, M., Schimmelmann, B. G., Hebebrand, J., Daum, I. et al. (2010). Social Cognition in Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 34, 734-743. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2009.10.009
Utama, N. P., Takemoto, A., Koike, Y., & Nakamura, K. (2009). Phased Processing of Facial Emotion: An ERP Study. Neuroscience Research, 64, 30-40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neures.2009.01.009
Vuilleumier, P. (2005). How Brains Beware: Neural Mechanisms of Emotional Attention. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 9, 585-594. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2005.10.011
Vuilleumier, P., & Pourtois, G. (2007). Distributed and Interactive Brain Mechanisms during Emotion Face Perception: Evidence from Functional Neuroimaging. Neuropsychologia, 45, 174-194. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2006.06.003
Vuilleumier, P., Armony, J. L., Driver, J., & Dolan, R. J. (2001). Effects of Attention and Emotion on Face Processing in the Human Brain: An Event-Related fMRI Study. Neuron, 30, 829-841. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0896-6273(01)00328-2
Wells, L. J., Gillespie, S. M., & Rotshtein, P. (2016). Identification of Emotional Facial Expressions: Effects of Expression, Intensity, and Sex on Eye Gaze. PLOS ONE, 11, e0168307. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0168307
Whalen, P. J., Rauch, S. L., Etcoff, N. L., McInerney, S. C., Lee, M. B., & Jenike, M. A. (1998). Masked Presentations of Emotional Facial Expressions Modulate Amygdala Activity without Explicit Knowledge. Journal of Neuroscience, 18, 411-418. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.18-01-00411.1998
Whittemore, R., & Knafl, K. (2005). The Integrative Review: Updated Methodology. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 52, 546-553. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2648.2005.03621.x
Williams, L. M., Hermens, D. F., Palmer, D., Kohn, M., Clarke, S., Keage, H. et al. (2008). Misinterpreting Emotional Expressions in Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: Evidence for a Neural Marker and Stimulant Effects. Biological Psychiatry, 63, 917-926. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2007.11.022
Williams, L. M., Mathersul, D., Palmer, D. M., Gur, R. C., Gur, R. E., & Gordon, E. (2009). Explicit Identification and Implicit Recognition of Facial Emotions: I. Age Effects in Males and Females across 10 Decades. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 31, 257-277. https://doi.org/10.1080/13803390802255635