Purpose: The purpose of the present study was to investigate the effects of a strategic self-talk intervention on flow in young high-level Taekwondo athletes. Methods: Originally, twenty-eight young high-level Taekwondo athletes were recruited from two sport clubs that were assigned as experimental ( n = 15) and control ( n = 13) groups. An eight-week intervention was implemented between two competitions where flow was assessed. During the eight weeks, athletes practiced three times per week with the same 10-minute drill routine following their typical warm-up, with the experimental group practicing using strategic self-talk. Seventeen athletes participated in both competitions before and after the intervention. Results: Pairwise comparisons showed significant increases for the experimental group in the dimensions of challenge-skills balance, clear goals, unambiguous feedback, sense of control, and overall flow at post-intervention, whereas no differences were found for the control group. Discussion: The findings provide preliminary, yet useful, insight into the effectiveness of a strategic self-talk intervention in facilitating aspects of flow among young high-level Taekwondo athletes in competition and contribute to the existing literature on the mechanisms explaining the facilitating effects of strategic self-talk in sports.
Bell, J. J., & Hardy, J. (2009). Effects of Attentional Focus on Skilled Performance in Golf. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 21, 163-177. https://doi.org/10.1080/10413200902795323
Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1990). Flow: The Psychology of Optimal Experience . Harper & Row.
de Sampaio Barros, M. F., Araújo-Moreira, F. M., Trevelin, L. C., & Radel, R. (2018). Flow Experience and the Mobilization of Attentional Resources. Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience, 18, 810-823. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13415-018-0606-4
Faul, F., Erdfelder, E., Lang, A., & Buchner, A. (2007). G*power 3: A Flexible Statistical Power Analysis Program for the Social, Behavioral, and Biomedical Sciences. Behavior Research Methods, 39, 175-191. https://doi.org/10.3758/bf03193146
Galanis, E., & Hatzigeorgiadis, A. (2020). Self-Talk Mechanisms. In A. T. Latinjak, & A. Hatzigeorgiadis (Eds.), Self-Talk in Sport (pp. 136-153). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429460623-10
Galanis, E., Hatzigeorgiadis, A., Charachousi, F., Latinjak, A. T., Comoutos, N., & Theodorakis, Y. (2022). Strategic Self-Talk Assists Basketball Free Throw Performance under Conditions of Physical Exertion. Frontiers in Sports and Active Living, 4, Article ID: 892046. https://doi.org/10.3389/fspor.2022.892046
Galanis, E., Hatzigeorgiadis, A., Comoutos, N., Charachousi, F., & Sanchez, X. (2018). From the Lab to the Field: Effects of Self-Talk on Task Performance under Distracting Conditions. The Sport Psychologist, 32, 26-32. https://doi.org/10.1123/tsp.2017-0017
Galanis, E., Hatzigeorgiadis, A., Comoutos, N., Papaioannou, A., Morres, I. D., & Theodorakis, Y. (2022). Effects of a Strategic Self-Talk Intervention on Attention Functions. International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 20, 1368-1382. https://doi.org/10.1080/1612197x.2021.1963304
Galanis, E., Hatzigeorgiadis, A., Zourbanos, N., & Theodorakis, Y. (2016). Why Self-Talk Is Effective? A Review on the Self-Talk Mechanisms in Sport. In M. Raab, P. Wylleman, R. Seiler, A. M. Elbe, & A. Hatzigeorgiadis (Eds.), Sport and Exercise Psychology Research: From Theory to Practice (pp. 181-200). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-803634-1.00008-x
Galanis, E., Mylonopoulos, A., Comoutos, N., Theodorakis, Y., & Hatzigeorgiadis, A. (2022). From Training to Competition: The Effects of a Strategic Self-Talk Intervention on Pre-Competition Anxiety and Self-Confidence in Young Swimmers. Inquiries in Physical Education & Sport, 20, 86-93.
Galanis, E., Nurkse, L., Kooijman, J., Papagiannis, E., Karathanasi, A., Comoutos, N. et al. (2022). Effects of a Strategic Self-Talk Intervention on Attention Functions and Performance in a Golf Task under Conditions of Ego Depletion. Sustainability, 14, Article No. 7046. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14127046
Goddard, S. G., Stevens, C. J., Jackman, P. C., & Swann, C. (2023). A Systematic Review of Flow Interventions in Sport and Exercise. International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 16, 657-692. https://doi.org/10.1080/1750984x.2021.1923055
Harris, D. J., Vine, S. J., & Wilson, M. R. (2017). Is Flow Really Effortless? The Complex Role of Effortful Attention. Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology, 6, 103-114. https://doi.org/10.1037/spy0000083
Hatzigeorgiadis, A., Bartura, K., Argiropoulos, C., Comoutos, N., Galanis, E., & D. Flouris, A. (2018). Beat the Heat: Effects of a Motivational Self-Talk Intervention on Endurance Performance. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 30, 388-401. https://doi.org/10.1080/10413200.2017.1395930
Hatzigeorgiadis, A., Galanis, E., & Theodorakis, Y. (2020). Strategic Self-Talk Interventions. In A. T. Latinjak, & A. Hatzigeorgiadis (Eds.), Self-Talk in Sport (pp. 123-135). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429460623-9
Hatzigeorgiadis, A., Galanis, E., Zourbanos, N., & Theodorakis, Y. (2014). Self-Talk and Competitive Sport Performance. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 26, 82-95. https://doi.org/10.1080/10413200.2013.790095
Hatzigeorgiadis, A., Theodorakis, Y., & Zourbanos, N. (2004). Self-Talk in the Swimming Pool: The Effects of Self-Talk on Thought Content and Performance on Water-Polo Tasks. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 16, 138-150. https://doi.org/10.1080/10413200490437886
Hatzigeorgiadis, A., Zourbanos, N., Galanis, E., & Theodorakis, Y. (2011). Self-Talk and Sports Performance: A Meta-Analysis. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 6, 348-356. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691611413136
Hatzigeorgiadis, A., Zourbanos, N., Mpoumpaki, S., & Theodorakis, Y. (2009). Mechanisms Underlying the Self-Talk-Performance Relationship: The Effects of Motivational Self-Talk on Self-Confidence and Anxiety. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 10, 186-192. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2008.07.009
Jackman, P. C., Swann, C., & Crust, L. (2016). Exploring Athletes’ Perceptions of the Relationship between Mental Toughness and Dispositional Flow in Sport. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 27, 56-65. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2016.07.007
Jackson, S. A., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1999). Flow in Sports: The Keys to Optimal Experiences and Performances . Human Kinetics.
Jackson, S. A., & Eklund, R. C. (2002). Assessing Flow in Physical Activity: The Flow State Scale-2 and Dispositional Flow Scale-2. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 24, 133-150. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsep.24.2.133
Jackson, S. A., & Eklund, R. C. (2004). The Flow Scales Manual . Publishers Graphics.
Jackson, S. A., Thomas, P. R., Marsh, H. W., & Smethurst, C. J. (2001). Relationships between Flow, Self-Concept, Psychological Skills, and Performance. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 13, 129-153. https://doi.org/10.1080/104132001753149865
Landin, D., & Hebert, E. P. (1999). The Influence of Self-Talk on the Performance of Skilled Female Tennis Players. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 11, 263-282. https://doi.org/10.1080/10413209908404204
Latinjak, A. T., Hatzigeorgiadis, A., Comoutos, N., & Hardy, J. (2019). Speaking Clearly... 10 Years on: The Case for an Integrative Perspective of Self-Talk in Sport. Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology, 8, 353-367. https://doi.org/10.1037/spy0000160
Martin, G. L., Vause, T., & Schwartzman, L. (2005). Experimental Studies of Psychological Interventions with Athletes in Competitions: Why So Few? Behavior Modification, 29, 616-641. https://doi.org/10.1177/0145445503259394
Miller Taylor, R. E., Brinthaupt, T. M., & Pennington, J. (2018). The Relationship between Self-Talk and Flow Experiences in Competitive Athletes. Journal of Sport Behavior, 41, 88-106.
Nakamura, J., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2002). The Concept of Flow. In C. R. Snyder, & S. J. Lopez (Eds.), Handbook of Positive Psychology (pp. 89-105). Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780195135336.003.0007
Norsworthy, C., Thelwell, R., Weston, N., & Jackson, A. S. (2018). Flow Training, Flow States, and Performance in Elite Athletes. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 49 , 134-152.
Peifer, C., Schulz, A., Schächinger, H., Baumann, N., & Antoni, C. H. (2014). The Relation of Flow-Experience and Physiological Arousal under Stress—Can U Shape It? Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 53, 62-69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2014.01.009
Pujol, M., Caroux, L., & Lemercier, C. (2024). Flow State Requires Effortful Attentional Control but Is Experienced Effortlessly by Video Game Players. Interacting with Computers, 36, 371-382. https://doi.org/10.1093/iwc/iwae026
Stavrou, N. A., & Zervas, Y. (2004). Confirmatory Factor Analysis of the Flow State Scale in Sports. International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 2, 161-181. https://doi.org/10.1080/1612197x.2004.9671739
Stavrou, N. A., Jackson, S. A., Zervas, Y., & Karteroliotis, K. (2007). Flow Experience and Athletes’ Performance with Reference to the Orthogonal Model of Flow. The Sport Psychologist, 21, 438-457. https://doi.org/10.1123/tsp.21.4.438
Swann, C. (2016). Flow in Sport. In L. Harmat, F. Ø. Andersen, F. Ullén, J. Wright, & G. Sadlo (Eds.), Flow Experience: Empirical Research and Applications (pp. 51-64). Springer International Publishing.
Swann, C., Crust, L., Jackman, P., Vella, S. A., Allen, M. S., & Keegan, R. (2017). Psychological States Underlying Excellent Performance in Sport: Toward an Integrated Model of Flow and Clutch States. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 29, 375-401. https://doi.org/10.1080/10413200.2016.1272650
Swann, C., Keegan, R. J., Piggott, D., & Crust, L. (2012). A Systematic Review of the Experience, Occurrence, and Controllability of Flow States in Elite Sport. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 13, 807-819. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2012.05.006
Swann, C., Keegan, R., Crust, L., & Piggott, D. (2016). Psychological States Underlying Excellent Performance in Professional Golfers: “Letting It Happen” vs. “Making It Happen”. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 23, 101-113. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2015.10.008
Tzormpatzakis, E., Galanis, E., Chaldeaki, A., & Hatzigeorgiadis, A. (2022). Application of Strategic Self-Talk: An Experimental Study on the Effects on Shooting Stability and Performance. International Journal of Kinesiology and Sports Science, 10, 52-56. https://doi.org/10.7575/aiac.ijkss.v.10n.1p.52
Ullén, F., de Manzano, Ö., Theorell, T., & Harmat, L. (2010). The Physiology of Effortless Attention: Correlates of State Flow and Flow Proneness. In B. Bruya (Éd.), Effortless Attention (pp. 205-218). The MIT Press. https://doi.org/10.7551/mitpress/9780262013840.003.0011
Wallace, P. J., McKinlay, B. J., Coletta, N. A., Vlaar, J. I., Taber, M. J., Wilson, P. M., & Cheung, S. S. (2017). Effects of Motivational Self-Talk on Endurance and Cognitive Performance in the Heat. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 49, 191-199. https://doi.org/10.1249/mss.0000000000001087
Zetou, E., Vernadakis, N., Bebetsos, E., & Liadakis, N. (2014). The Effect of Self-Talk on Tae-Kwon-Do Skills’ Learning of Novice Athletes and Perceived Use of It. Journal of Human Sport and Exercise, 9, 124-135. https://doi.org/10.4100/jhse.2014.91.13