In recent years, the study of optimism and its possible influence on athletic performance has increased considerably. The key purposes of this study can be summarized as: 1 ) analyze how self-efficacy expecta tions vary depending on the level of optimism an individual has ; 2 ) ascertain how progressively receiving negative feedback affects performance expectations; and 3 ) evaluate whether there are differences in per - formance depending on the presence or absence of feedback. In order to achieve this, 53 Spanish football players were assessed using the Revised Life Orientation Test and an objective test of strength using hand dynamometry. The level of feedback provided was manipulated to study its influence on perceived self- efficacy in the applied strength task. The results show no significant difference between the three levels of optimism/pessimism respecting self-efficacy. Significant differences do appear when the effects of the in - dividual feedback provided for each experimental group is analyzed. The findings are discussed and fu ture research is proposed based on the results obtained.
Abramson, L. Y., Seligman, M. E. P., & Teasdale, J. D. (1978). Learned helplessness in human: critique and reformulation. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 87, 49-74. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.87.1.49
Apitzsch, E. (1994). La personalidad del jugador de fútbol de élite. Revista de Psicología del deporte, 3, 89-99.
Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. New York. Prentice Hall.
Beniscelli, V., & Torregrosa, M. (2010). Componentes del esfuerzo percibido en fútbol de iniciación. Cuadernos de Psicología del Deporte, 10, 7-22.
Buchanan, G., & Seligman, M. E. P. (1995). Explanatory style. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Chase, M. A., & Feltz, D. (1999). Evaluación de la autoeficacia en actividad física y deporte. Revista de Psicología Social y Aplicada, 9, 85-98.
Chen, L. H., Kee, Y. H., & Tsai., Y. M. (2008). Relation of dispostitional optimism with burnout among athletes. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 106, 693-698. doi:10.2466/pms.106.3.693-698
Chico E., & Ferrando P. J. (2008). Variables cognitivas y afectivas como predictoras de satisfacción en la vida. Psicothema, 20, 408 412.
Davis, H., & Zaichkowsky, L. (1998). Explanatory style among elite ice hockey athletes. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 87, 1075-1080. doi:10.2466/pms.1998.87.3.1075
De la Vega, R., Ruiz, R., Rivera, O., & Ortín, F. (in press). Aplicación de una prueba objetiva conductual de evaluación de la influencia de los otros en el rendimiento en fútbol. Cuadernos de Psicología del Deporte.
De la Vega, R., Ruiz, R., & Rivera, O. (2011). Hardiness in endurance races: a comparation between skyrunning and 10 kilometers. Revista de Psicología del Deporte, 20, 445-454.
Fernández, E., & Bermudez, J. (2001). Pesimismo defensivo, opti mismo y dificultad de la tarea: Un análisis del papel de las expe ctativas. Revista de Psicología general y aplicada, 54, 371-388.
Ferrando, P. J., Chico, E. & Tous, J. M. (2002). Propiedades psi cométricas del test de optimismo Life Orientation Test. Psicothema, 14, 673-680.
García, A., & Díaz Morales, J. F. (2010). Relación entre optimismo/ pesimismo disposicional, rendimiento y edad en jugadores de fútbol de competición. Revista Iberoamericana de Psicología del ejercicio y del deporte, 5, 45-60.
Gordon, R. (2008). Attributional style and athletic performance: Strategic optimism and defensive pessimism. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 9, 336-350. doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2007.04.007
Gould, D., Dieffenbach, K., & Moffatt, A. (2002). Psychological characteristics and their development in Olympic champions. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 14, 172-204. doi:10.1080/10413200290103482
Gustafsson, H., & Skoog, T. (2012). The mediational role of perceived stress in the relation between optimism and burnout in competitive athletes. Anxiety Stress and Coping, 25, 183-199. doi:10.1080/10615806.2011.594045
Hale, B. (1993). Explanatory style as a predictor of academic and athletic achievement in college athletes. Journal of sport behavior, 16, 63-76.
Kamen, L. P., Rodin, J., & Seligman, M. E. P. (1987). Explanatory Style and immune functioning. Unpublished Manuscript, Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania.
Martin-Krumm, C., Sarrazin, P., Peterson, C. & Famose, J. (2003). Explanatory style and resilience after sport failure. Personality and Individual Differences, 35, 1685-1697. doi:10.1016/S0191-8869(02)00390-2
Moleiro, M. A., & Villamarín, F. (2004). El papel de la autoeficacia en el entrenamiento para controlar la frecuencia cardíaca durante pruebas de esfuerzo. Psicothema, 16, 50-57.
Moreno, M. P., Santos, J. A., Ramos, L. A., Cervelló, E., Iglesias, D., & Del Villar, F. (2005). The efficacy of the verbal behaviour of volleyball coaches during competition. Motricidad, European Journal of Human Movement, 13, 55-69.
Nicholls, A. R., Polman, R. C., Levy, A. R., & Backhouse, S. H. (2008). Mental toughness, optimism, pessimism and coping among athletes. Personality and Individual Differences, 44, 1182-1192. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2007.11.011
Norlander, T., Bood, S., & Archer, T. (2002). Performance during stress: affective personality, age, an regularity of physical exercise. Social Behavior and Personality: An international Journal, 30, 495 508. doi:10.2224/sbp.2002.30.5.495
Ortín, F., Garcés de los Fayos, E., Gosalves, J., Ortega, E., & Olmedilla, A. (2011). Optimism and sport performance in adverse conditions. Replicating Seligman 1990. Revista de Psicología del Deporte, 20, 491-501.
Ortín, F. J., Ortega, E., López, E., & Olmedilla, A. (2012). Estilos explicativos de los entrenadores de fútbol profesional en el análisis de la competición deportiva. Anales de Psicología, 28, 233-239.
Otero, J. M., Luengo, A., Romero, E., Gómez, J. A., & Castro, C. (1998). Psicología de personalidad. Manual de prácticas. Barcelona: Ariel Practicum.
Parkes, J., & Mallet, C. (2011). Developing mental toughness: Attributional style retraining in rugby. The Sport Psychologist, 25, 269-287.
Peterson, C., & Seligman, M. E. P. (1984). Causal explanations as a risk factor for depresion: Theory and evidence. Psychological Review, 91, 347-374. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.91.3.347
Peterson, C., & De Avila, M. E. (1995). Optimistic explanatory style and the perception of health problems. Journal of clinical Psychology, 51, 128-132. doi:10.1002/1097-4679(199501)51:1 3.0.CO;2-1
Peterson, C., Seligman, M. E. P., Yurko, K. H., Martin, L. R., & Fried man, H. S. (1998). Catasthophizing and untimely death. Psychology cal Science, 9, 49-52.
R?ikk?nen, K. M. (1999). Effects of optimism, pessimism, and trait anxiety on ambulatory blood pressure and mood during everyday life. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76, 104-113. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.76.1.104
Regourd-Laizeau, M., Martin-Krumm, C., & Tarquinio, C. (2012). Interventions in the field of sport: Protocol of optimism. Pratiques Psychologiques, 18, 189-204. doi:10.1016/j.prps.2012.02.001
Remor, E., Amorós, M., & Carrobles, J. A. (2006). El optimismo y la experiencia de ira en relación con el malestar físico. Anales de Psicología, 22, 37-44.
Ribes-Iniesta, E., & Contreras, S. (2007). Individual consistencies in behavior: Achievement persistence interactions as personality styles. Psychological Reports, 101, 365-377.
San Juan, P., & Magallanes, A. (2007). Estilos explicativos y estra tegias de afrontamiento. Clínica y salud, 18, 83-98.
Scheier, M. F., & Carver, C. S. (1985). Optimism, coping and health: Assessment and implications of generalized outcome expectancies. Health psychology, 4, 219-247. doi:10.1037/0278-6133.4.3.219
Scheier, M. F., & Carver, C. S. (1989). Dispositional optimism and recovery from coronary artery bypass surgery. The beneficial effects on physical and psychological well-being. Journal of personality an social psychology, 57, 1024-1040. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.57.6.1024
Scheier, M. F., & Carver, C. S. (1993). On the power of positive thinking. The benefits of being optimistic. Current Directions in psychological Science, 2, 26-30. doi:10.1111/1467-8721.ep10770572
Scheier, M., Carver, C. S., & Bridges, M. W. (1994). Distinguishing optimism from neuroticism (and trait anxiety, self-mastery, and self-esteem): A revaluation of the Life Orientation Test. Journal of personality and social psychology, 6, 1063-1078. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.67.6.1063
Segerstrom, S. T. (1998). Optimism is associated with mood, coping and immune change in response to stress. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 1646-1655. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.74.6.1646
Seligman, M. E. P., Noles-Hoeksema, S., Thorton, N., & Thorton, K. (1990). Explanatory style as a mechanism of disappointing athletic performance. Psychological Science, 1, 143-146. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.1990.tb00084.x
Seligman, M. E. P. (1998). The President’s address. APA. American Psychologist, 54, 559-562.
Seligman, M., Castellón, C., Cacciola, J., Shulman, P., Luborsky, L., & Downing, R. (1988). Explanatory Style change during cognitive therapy for unipolar depresion. Journal of abnormal psychology, 97, 13-18. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.97.1.13
Seligman, M. E. P., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2000). Positive psychol ogy: An introduction. American Psychologist, 55, 5-14. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.5
Seligman, M. (2004). Aprenda Optimismo: Haga de la vida una experiencia gratificante. Debolsillo.
Snyder, C. R., & López, C. J. (2002). Handbook of positive psychology. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Vera-Villarroel, P. E., & Buela-Casal, G. (2000). Relaciones entre ansiedad y estilo atributivo. Revista Mexicana de Psicología, 17, 137-142.
Weiner, B., Frieze, I. H., Kukla, A., Reed, L., Rest, S. & Rosenbaum, R. M. (1971). Perceiving the causes of success and failure. Morristown, NJ: General Learning Press.
Wilson, G. S., Raglin, J. S., & Pritchard, M. E. (2002). Optimism, pessimism, and precompetition anxiety in collegiate athletes. Per sonality and Individual Differences, 32, 893-903. doi:10.1016/S0191-8869(01)00094-0