Self-compassion represents an attitude that has the strength of fostering positive emotions toward oneself while simultaneously maintaining a sense of connectedness with others. Empirical work so far has provided evidence that self-compassion contributes to well-being, happiness and life satisfaction. Domestic violence may be defined as willful intimidation, physical assault, battery, sexual assault, and/or other abusive behavior—as part of a systematic pattern of power and control—perpetrated by one intimate partner against another. Domestic violence survivors often feel shame, and blame themselves for being battered. This study aimed to examine the effectiveness of a self-compassion program in increasing self-compassion and fostering psychological well-being of abused women. A sample of 21 women completed five self-report questionnaires (Self-Compassion Scale, Positive and Negative Affect Scale, Resilience Scale, Subjective Happiness Scale and Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scale) one week prior, one week following and six months after the completion of the six-week intervention program. The results indicated significant increases in self-compassion, positive affect, resilience and subjective happiness as well as decreases in negative affect depression, anxiety and stress. These findings might assist researchers and clinicians to develop future interventions in order to cultivate kind and encouraging attitudes in suffering individuals.
KeywordsSelf-Compassion ProgramDomestic ViolenceSelf-CompassionWell Being
Albertson, E. R., Neff, K. D., & Dill-Shackleford, K. E. (2015). Self-Compassion and Body Dissatisfaction in Women: A Randomized Controlled Trial of a Brief Meditation Intervention. Mindfulness, 6, 444-454. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-014-0277-3
Allen, A. B., & Leary, M. R. (2010). Self-Compassion, Stress, and Coping. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 4, 107-118. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-9004.2009.00246.x
Andrews, B., & Brewin, C. R. (1990). Attributions of Blame for Marital Violence: A Study of Antecedents and Consequences. Journal of Marriage and Family, 52, 757-767. https://doi.org/10.2307/352940
Barnard, L. K., & Curry, J. F. (2011). Self-Compassion: Conceptualizations, Correlates, & Interventions. Review of General Psychology, 15, 289-303. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0025754
Campbell, J. C., & Lewandowski, L. A. (1997). Mental and Physical Health Effects of Intimate Partner Violence on Women and Children. Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 20, 353-374. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0193-953X(05)70317-8
Cascardi, M., & O’Leary, K. D. (1992). Depressive Symptomatology, Self-Esteem, and Self-Blame in Battered women. Journal of Family Violence, 7, 249-259. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00994617
Choi, Y. M., Lee, D. G., & Lee, H. K. (2014). The Effect of Self-Compassion on Emotions When Experiencing a Sense of Inferiority across Comparison Situations. Procedia— Social and Behavioral Sciences, 114, 949-953. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2013.12.813
Cohn, M. A., & Fredrickson, B. L. (2010). In Search of Durable Positive Psychology Interventions: Predictors and Consequences of Long-Term Positive Behavior Change. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 5, 355-366. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2010.508883
Connor, K. M., & Davidson, J. R. (2003). Development of a New Resilience Scale: The Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-RISC). Depression and Anxiety, 18, 76-82. https://doi.org/10.1002/da.10113
Costa, J., Maroco, J., Pinto-Gouveia, J., Ferreira, C., & Castilho, P. (2016). Validation of the Psychometric Properties of the Self Compassion Scale. Testing the Factorial Validity and Factorial Invariance of the Measure among Borderline Personality Disorder, Anxiety Disorder, Eating Disorder and General Populations. Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy, 23, 460-468. https://doi.org/10.1002/cpp.1974
Daskalou, & Sigkollitou. (2012). Positive and Negative Affect Scale (PANAS). In A. Stalikas, S. Triliva, & P. Roussi (Eds.), Psychometric Instruments in Greece (2nd ed., p. 526). Athens: Pedio.
Dimitriadou, D., & Stalikas, A. (2012). Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-RISC). In A. Stalikas, S. Triliva, & P. Roussi (Eds.), Psychometric Instruments in Greece (2nd ed., p. 717). Athens: Pedio.
Fredrickson, B. L. (2001). The Role of Positive Emotions in Positive Psychology: The Broaden-and-Build Theory of Positive Emotions. American Psychologist, 56, 218-226. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.56.3.218
Fredrickson, B. L., & Branigan, C. (2005). Positive Emotions Broaden the Scope of Attention and Thought-Action Repertoires. Cognition & Emotion, 19, 313-332. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699930441000238
Germer, C. K., & Neff, K. D. (2013). Self Compassion in Clinical Practice. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 69, 856-867. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.22021
Gilbert, P., & Proctor, S. (2006). Compassionate Mind Training for People with High Shame and Self-Criticism: Overview and Pilot Study of a Group Therapy Approach. Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, 13, 353-379. https://doi.org/10.1002/cpp.507
Gilbert, P., & Irons, C. (2004). A Pilot Exploration of the Use of Compassionate Images in a Group of Self-Critical People. Memory, 12, 507-516. https://doi.org/10.1080/09658210444000115
Hall, C. W., Row, K. A., Wuensch, K. L., & Godley, K. R. (2013). The Role of Self-Compassion in Physical and Psychological Well-Being. The Journal of Psychology, 147, 311-323. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223980.2012.693138
Heffernan, M., Quinn Griffin, M. T., McNulty, S. R., & Fitzpatrick, J. J. (2010). Self-Compassion and Emotional Intelligence in Nurses. International Journal of Nursing Practice, 16, 366-373. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1440-172X.2010.01853.x
Hollis-Walker, L., & Colosimo, K. (2011). Mindfulness, Self-Compassion, and Happiness in Non-Meditators: A Theoretical and Empirical Examination. Personality and Individual Differences, 50, 222-227.
Karakasidou, E., Pezirkianidis, C., Galanakis, M., & Stalikas, A. (2017). Validity, Reliability and Factorial Structure of the Self Compassion Scale in the Greek Population. Journal of Psychology and Psychotherapy, 7, 313.
Karakasidou, E., Pezirkianidis, C., Stalikas, A., & Galanakis, M. (2016). Standardization of the Subjective Happiness Scale (SHS) in a Greek Sample. Psychology, 7, 1753-1765. https://doi.org/10.4236/psych.2016.714164
Karakasidou, E., & Stalikas, A. (2017). Empowering the Battered Women: The Effectiveness of a Self-Compassion Program. Psychology. Psychology, 8, 538-549. https://doi.org/10.4236/psych.2017.84034
Leary, M. R., Tate, E. B., Adams, C. E., Batts Allen, A., & Hancock, J. (2007). Self-Compassion and Reactions to Unpleasant Self-Relevant Events: The Implications of Treating Oneself Kindly. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92, 887-904. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.92.5.887
Lovibond, P. F., & Lovibond, S. H. (1995). The Structure of Negative Emotional States: Comparison of the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS) with the Beck Depression and Anxiety Inventories. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 33, 335-343.
Lyrakos, G. N., Arvaniti, C., Smyrnioti, M., & Kostopanagiotou, G. (2011). P03-561-Translation and Validation Study of the Depression Anxiety Stress Scale in the Greek General Population and in a Psychiatric Patient’s Sample. European Psychiatry, 26, 1731.
Lyubomirsky, S., & Lepper, H. S. (1999). A Measure of Subjective Happiness: Preliminary Reliability and Construct Validation. Social Indicators Research, 46, 137-155. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1006824100041
Macaskill, A., Maltby, J., & Day, L. (2002). Forgiveness of Self and Others and Emotional Empathy. The Journal of Social Psychology, 142, 663-665. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224540209603925
National Coalition against Domestic Violence (2015). What Is Domestic Violence? http://www.ncadv.org/need-support/what-is-domestic-violence
Neely, M. E., Schallert, D. L., Mohammed, S. S., Roberts, R. M., & Chen, Y. J. (2009). Self-Kindness When Facing Stress: The Role of Self-Compassion, Goal Regulation, and Support in College Students’ Well-Being. Motivation and Emotion, 33, 88-97. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-008-9119-8
Neff, K. D. (2003a). The Development and Validation of a Scale to Measure Self-Compassion. Self and Identity, 2, 223-250. https://doi.org/10.1080/15298860309027
Neff, K. D. (2003b). Self Compassion: An Alternative Conceptualization of a Healthy Attitude toward Oneself. Self and Identity, 2, 85-102. https://doi.org/10.1080/15298860309032
Neff, K. D. (2009). The Role of Self-Compassion in Development: A Healthier Way to Relate to Oneself. Human Development, 52, 211-214. https://doi.org/10.1159/000215071
Neff, K. D. (2016). The Self-Compassion Scale Is a Valid and Theoretically Coherent Measure of Self-Compassion. Mindfulness, 7, 264-274. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-015-0479-3
Neff, K. D., & Costigan, A. P. (2014). Self-Compassion, Well-Being, and Happiness. Psychologie in Osterreich, 2, 114-119.
Neff, K. D., Hsieh, Y. P., & Dejitterat, K. (2005). Self-Compassion, Achievement Goals, and Coping with Academic Failure. Self and Identity, 4, 263-287. https://doi.org/10.1080/13576500444000317
Neff, K. D., Kirkpatrick, K. L., & Rude, S. S. (2007). Self-Compassion and Adaptive Psychological Functioning. Journal of Research in Personality, 41, 139-154.
Neff, K. D., & McGehee, P. (2010). Self-Compassion and Psychological Resilience among Adolescents and Young Adults. Self and Identity, 9, 225-240. https://doi.org/10.1080/15298860902979307
Neff, K. D., Rude, S. S., & Kirkpatrick, K. L. (2007). An Examination of Self-Compassion in Relation to Positive Psychological Functioning and Personality Traits. Journal of Research in Personality, 41, 908-916.
Podsakoff, P. M., MacKenzie, S. B., Lee, J. Y., & Podsakoff, N. P. (2003). Common Method Biases in Behavioral Research: A Critical Review of the Literature and Recommended Remedies. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88, 879-903. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.88.5.879
Seligman, M. E. P., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2000). Positive Psychology: An Introduction. American Psychologist, 55, 5-14. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.5
Seligowski, A. V., Miron, L. R., & Orcutt, H. K. (2015). Relations among Self-Compassion, PTSD Symptoms, and Psychological Health in a Trauma-Exposed Sample. Mindfulness, 6, 1033-1041. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-014-0351-x
Shapira, L. B., & Mongrain, M. (2010). The Benefits of Self-Compassion and Optimism Exercises for Individuals Vulnerable to Depression. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 5, 377-389. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2010.516763
Smeets, E., Neff, K., Alberts, H., & Peters, M. (2014). Meeting Suffering with Kindness: Effects of a Brief Self Compassion Intervention for Female College Students. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 70, 794-807. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.22076
Southwick, S. M., Pietrzak, R. H., & White, G. (2011). Interventions to Enhance Resilience and Resilience-Related Constructs in Adults. In S. M. Southwick, B. T. Litz, D. Charney, & M. J. Friedman (Eds.), Resilience and Mental Health: Challenges across the Lifespan (pp. 289-306). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511994791.022
Southwick, S. M., Vythilingam, M., & Charney, D. S. (2005). The Psychobiology of Depression and Resilience to Stress: Implications for Prevention and Treatment. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 1, 255-291. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.clinpsy.1.102803.143948
Thompson, B. L., & Waltz, J. (2008). Self-Compassion and PTSD Symptom Severity. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 21, 556-558. https://doi.org/10.1002/jts.20374
Trompetter, H. R., Bohlmeijer, E. T., Lamers, S. M. A., & Schreurs, K. M. G. (2016). Positive Psychological Wellbeing Is Required for Online Self-Help Acceptance and Commitment Therapy for Chronic Pain to Be Effective. Frontiers in Psychology, 7, 353. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00353
Turnage, B. F., Jacinto, G. A., & Kirven, J. (2003). Reality Therapy, Domestic Violence Survivors, and Self-Forgiveness. International Journal of Reality Therapy, 22, 24-27.
Van Dam, N. T., Sheppard, S. C., Forsyth, J. P., & Earleywine, M. (2011). Self-Compassion Is a Better Predictor than Mindfulness of Symptom Severity and Quality of Life in Mixed Anxiety and Depression. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 25, 123-130.
Watson, D., Clark, L. A., & Tellegen, A. (1988). Development and Validation of Brief Measures of Positive and Negative Affect: The PANAS Scales. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 54, 1063-1070. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.54.6.1063
Wei, M., Liao, K. Y. H., Ku, T. Y., & Shaffer, P. A. (2011). Attachment, Self Compassion, Empathy, and Subjective Well-Being among College Students and Community Adults. Journal of Personality, 79, 191-221. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2010.00677.x
Williams, M. J., Dalgleish, T., Karl, A., & Kuyken, W. (2014). Examining the Factor Structures of the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire and the Self-Compassion Scale. Psychological Assessment, 26, 407. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0035566
Yang, X. (2016). Self-Compassion, Relationship Harmony, versus Self-Enhancement: Different Ways of Relating to Well-Being in Hong Kong Chinese. Personality and Individual Differences, 89, 24-27.
Zessin, U., Dickhauser, O., & Garbade, S. (2015). The Relationship between Self Compassion and Well Being: A Meta Analysis. Applied Psychology: Health and Well Being, 7, 340-364. https://doi.org/10.1111/aphw.12051